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3 1924 030 345 171

SOCIALISM

AND

PHILOSOPHY

',.''■

BY

ANTONIO LABRIOLA

'':/

•

1 til,' r.Y

Translated by

ERNEST UNTERMANH

From the Third Italian Edition, Revised and
Amplified by the Author

CHICAGO

CHARLES H. KERR & COMPANY

1907

c. t

AxKoG"-^.

Copyright, 1906
Bv Charles H. Kere & Company

JOHN F. HIGGINS, PRINTER AND BINDER

279-285 E. MONROE STREET

CHICAGO, u. G. A.

Socialism and Philosophy

I,

Rome, April 20, 1897.
Dear Mr. Sorel!

For some time I have intended to carry on a con-
versation in writing with you.

r This will be the best and most appropriate way of
expressing my gratitude for your preface to my essays.
It is a matter of course that I could not silently accept
the courteous words which you had heaped so profusely
upon me. I could not but reply to you at once and
acknowledge my obligation to you by a private letter.
And now there is no more need of our exchanging com-
pliments, especially in letters which either you or I may
have occasion to publish at some future time. Besides,
what good would it do me now to protest modestly and
ward off your praise ? It is entirely due to you that my
two essays on historical materialism, which are but rough
sketches, circulate in France in book-form. You placed
them before the public in this shape. It has never been
*in my mind to write a standard book, in the sense in
which you French, who admire and cultivate classic
methods in literature, use this term. I am of those who
regard this persistent devotion to the cult of classic style
as rather inconvenient for those who wish to express

6 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the results of strictly scientific thought in an original,
adequate, and easy manner. To me it is as inconvenient
as a badly fitting coat.

Passing over all compliments, then, I shall express
myself on the points which you have made in your
preface. I shall discuss them frankly without having in
view the writing of a monograph. I choose the form of
letters because interruptions, breaks in the continuity of
thought, and occasional jumps, such as would occur m
conversation, do not seem out of place and incongruous
there. I really should not write so many dissertations,
memorials, or articles, were it not for the fact that I
want to reply to the many questions which you ask in
the few pages of your preface, as though you were en-
grossed in doubting thoughts.*

But while I shall write the things as they come into
my mind, I do not intend to lessen my responsibility for
whatever I may say here, and shall continue to say.^ I
merely wish to throw off the burden of stiff and formal
prose which is customary for scientific exposition. Now-
adays there is no petty postgraduate, however diminutive,
who does not imagine that he is erecting a monument of
himself for contemporary and future generations when-
ever he consecrates a ponderous volume, or a learned
and intricate disquisition, to some stray thought or
chance observation caught in animated conversation or
inspired by some one who has a particular talent -for
teaching. Such impressions always have a greater sug-
gestive power by force of natural expression which is a
gift of those who seek the truth by themselves or tell
others about it for the first time.

•For the better understanding of ray letters I append the
preface (III) which Sorel has written for the French edition
of my two essays (Paris, 1897, Giard et Brlere).

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 7

We know well enough that this closing century, which
is all business, all money, does not freely circulate
thought unless it is likewise expressed in the revered
business form and endorsed by it, so that it may have
for fit companions the bill of the publisher and the
literary advertisements from frothy puffs to sincerest
praise. In the society of the future, in which we live
with our hopes, and still more with a good many illusions
that are not always the fruit of a well balanced imagi-
nation, there wiU grow out of all proportion, until they
are legion, the number of men who will be able to dis-
course with that divine joy in research and that heroic
courage of truth which we admire in a Plato, a Bruno,
a Galilei. There may also multiply infinitely the indi-
viduals who, like Diderot, shall be able to write profound
and beguiling things such as Jacques le Fataliste, which
we now imagine to be unsurpassed. In the society of
the future, in which leisure, rationally increased for aU,
shall give to all the requirements of liberty, the means
of culture, and the right to be lazy, this lucky discovery
of our Lafargue, there will be on every street corner
some genius wasting his time, like old master Socrates,
by working busily at some task not paid for in money.
But now, in the present world, in which only the insane
have visions of a millennium, many idlers exploit the
public appreciation by their worthless literature as
though they had earned a right to do so by legitimate
work. So it is that even Socialism will have to open its
bosom for a discreet multitude of idlers, shirkers, and
incapables.

In this trifling manner I approach my real argument.

You complain that the theories of historical materi-
alism have become so little appreciated in Prance. Yon

8 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

complain that the spread of these theories is prevented
l>y prejudices due to national vanity, to the literary
pretensions of some, to the philosophical blindness of
others, to the cursed desire to pose as something which
one is not, and finally to insufficient intellectual develop-
ment, not to mention the many shortcomings found even
among socialists. But all these things should not be
considered mere accidents ! Vanity, false pride, a desire
of posing without really being, a mania for self, self-
aggrandisement, the frenzied will to shine, all these and
other passions and virtues of civilized 'man are by no
means unessential in life, but may rather constitute very
often its substance and purpose. "We know that the
church has not succeeded in the majority of cases in
rendering the Christian mind humble, but has on the
contrary given to it a new title to another and greater
pretension. "Well now . . . this historical materialism
demands of those who wish to profess it consciously and
frankly a certain queer humility, that is to say, as soon
as we realize that we are bound up with the course of
human events and study its complicated lines and tortu-
ous windings, it behooves us not to be merely resigned
and acquiescent, but to engage in some conscious and
rational work. But there is the difficulty. We are to
come to the point of confessing to ourselves that our own
individuality, to which we are so closely attached
through an obvious and genetic habit, is a pretty small
thing in the complicated network of the social mechan-
ism, however great it may be, or appear, to us, even if
it is not such a mere evanescent nonentity as some hare-
brained theosophists claim. "We are to adapt ourselves
to the conviction that the subjective intentions and aims
of every one of us are always struggling against the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 9

resistance of the intricate processes of life, so that our
designs leave no trace of themselves, or leave a trace
which is quite different from the original intent, because
it is altered and transformed by the accompanying con-
ditions. We are to admit, after this statement, that
history lives our lives, so to say, and that our own con-
tribution toward it, while indispensable, is nevertheless
but a very minute factor in the crossing of forces which
combine, complete and alternately eliminate one another.
But aU these conceptions are veritable bores for all those
who feel the need of confining the universe within the
scope of their individual vision. Therefore the privilege
of heroes must be preserved in history, so that the
dwarfs may not be deprived of the faith that they are
able to ride on their own shoulders and make themselves
conspicuous. And this must be granted to them, even
if they are not worthy, in the words of Jean Paul, of
reaching to their own knees.

In fact, have not people been going to school for
centuries, only to be told that Julius Caesar founded
the empire and Charlemagne reconstructed it? That
Socrates as much as invented logic, and Dante created
Italian literature by a stroke of his pen? It is but a
very short time that the mythological conception of such
people as the creators of history has been gradually dis-
placed, and not always in precise terms, by the prosaic
notion of a historical process of society. Was not the
French revolution willed and made, according to vari-
ous versions of literary invention, by the different saints
of the liberalist legends, the saints of the right, the saints
of the left, the Girondist saints, the Jacobine saints?
Thus it comes that Taine has devoted quite a consider-
able portion of his ponderous intellect to the proof, as

10 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

though he were a proofreader of history, that all those
disturbances might eventually not have occurred at all.
By the way, I have never been able to understand why
a man with so little appreciation for the crude necessity
of facts should have called himself a positivist. It was
the good fortune of most of your saints in France which
enabled them alternately to honor one another and to
crown one another in due time with their deserved
diadem of thorns. For this reason the rules of classic
tragedy remained gloriously in force for them. If it
were not so, who knows how many imitators of Saint
Juste (a truly great man) would have ended through
the hands of the henchmen of the scoundrel Fouche, and
how many accomplices of Danton (a great man who
missed his place) would have donned the felon's garb
at Cambaeeres, while others might have been content to
pit themselves against the adventurous Drouet, or that
pitiful actor Tallien, for the modest stripes of a petty
prefect.

In short, to strive for first place is a matter of faith
and devotion for all who have learned the history of the
ancient style and agree with the orator Cicero in calling
her the Mistress of Life. And therefore they feel the
need of "making Socialism moral." Has not morality
taught us for centuries that we must give to each one
his dues? Aren't you going to preserve just a little
corner of paradise for us? This is what they seem to
ask me. And if we must give up the paradise of the
faithful and theologians, can't we preserve a little pagan
apotheosis in this world? Don't throw away the entire
moral of honest reward. Keep at least a good couch or
a seat in the front ranks of the theatre of vanity!

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 11

And this is the reason why revolutions, aside from
other necessary and inevitable causes, are useful and
desirable from this point of view. With the sweep of a
heavy broom they clear the ground of those who occupied
it so long, or at least they make the air more fit to be
breathed by giving it more ozone after the manner of
storms.

Don't you claim, and justly so, that the whole pl-actieal
question of Socialism (and by practical you mean no ~
doubt a method which is guided by the intellectual facts
of an enlightened consciousness based on theoretical
knowledge) may be reduced to, and summed up in, the
following three points: 1) Has the proletariat arrived
at a clear conception of its existence as a class by itself?
2) Has it strength enough to engage in a struggle
against the other classes? 3) Is it about to overthrow,
together with the organization of capitalism, the entire
system of traditional thought?

Very well !

Now let the proletariat come to a clear understanding
of what it can accomplish, or let it learn to want what
it can accomplish. Let this proletariat make it its busi-
ness, in the inept language of the professional writers,,
to solve the so-caUed social question. Let this proletariat
set before itself the task of doing away, among other
forms of exploiting your fellow-beings, with false glory,
with presumption, and with that singular competition
among themselves which prompts some of them to write
their own names into the golden book of merit in the
service of humanity. Let it make a bonfire also of this
book, together with so many others which bear the title
of Public Debt,

12 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

For the present it would be a vain undertaking to try-
to make all these people understand this frank principle
of eonnnunist ethjes, a principle which declares that
gratitude and admiration should come as a spontaneous
gift from our fellow-beings. Many of them would not
care to reach out for progress, were they sure of being
told, in the words of Baruch Spinoza, that virtue is its
own reward. In the meantime, until only the most
worthy things shall remain as objects of admiration in a
better society than ours, objects such as the outlines of
the Parthenon, the paintings of Raphael, the verses of
Dante and Goethe, and so many useful, secure, and
definitely acquired gifts of science, until then, I say, it
is not for us to stand in the way of those who have any
breath to spend, or printed cards to circulate, and who
wish to parade themselves in the name of so many fine
things, such as humanity, social justice, and so forth,
and even of Socialism, as happens frequently to those
who compete for the medal pour le merite and a place
in the legion of honor of the future proletarian revolu-
tion, though it may still be far off. Should not such
men have a presentiment that historical materialism is
a satire upon all their cherished assumptions and futile
ambitions? Should not they detest this new species of
pantheism, from which has disappeared, if you will
permit me to say so,— it is so utterly prosaic— even the
revered name of God ?

Here we must mention one important circumstance.
In all parts of civilized Europe men's minds, whether
true or false, have many opportunties to work in the
service of the state and in all lines of profit and honor
which the capitalist class has to offer. And this class is
not near so close to its end as some merry prophets would

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 13

have us believe. We need not wonder, then, that Engels
wrote in his preface to the third volume of Marx's
Capital, on October 4, 1894: "In our stirring times, as
in the 16th century, mere theorizers on public affairs
are found only on the side of the reactionaries." These
words, which are as clear as they are grave, should be
sufficient to close the mouths of those who boast that all
intelligence has passed over on our side, and that the
capitalist class will soon lay down arms. Just the reverse
is true. There is a scarcity of intellectual forces in our
ranks, the more so as the genuine laborers, for obvious
reasons, often protest against the speakers and writers
of the party. There is, then, no cause for surprise that
historical materialism should have made so little head-
way from its first general enunciation. And even if
we pass on to those who have done more than merely
repeat or ape the fundamental statements in a way that
sometimes approaches the burlesque, we must confess
that all the serious, relevant, and correct things which
have been written do not yet make a , complete theory
which has risen above the stage of first formation. None
of us would dare to invite comparison with Darwinism,
which in less than 40 years has gone through so much
of intensive and extensive development, that its theory
has already an enormous history, a superabundance of
material, a multitude of points of contact with other
sciences, a great store of methodical corrections, and a
great array of criticisms on the part of friend and foe.
All those who are standing outside of the socialist
movement had and have an interest in combatting, mis-
representing, or ignoring this new theory. The socialists,
on the other hand, have not had the time to devote them-
Belves to the care and study which are necessary in order

14 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSbPa-Sf

that any mental departure might gain in breadth of
development and scholarly maturity, such as mark those
sciences which are protected, or at least not combatted,
by the official world, and which grow and prosper
through the co-operation of many devoted collaborators.

Is not the diagnosis of a disease half a consolation?
Do not physicians act that way nowadays with sick
people, since they have become more inspired in their
medical practice by that scientific sentiment which shall
solve the problems of life 1

After all, only a few of the various results of historical
materialism are of a nature to acquire any marked popu-
larity. It is certain that this new method of investiga-
tion will enable some of us to write more conclusive
works of history than those generally written by literary
men who ply their art only with the help of philology
and classic learning. And aside from the knowledge
which active socialists may derive from the accurate
analysis of the field on which they move, there is no
doubt that historical materialism has directly or in-
directly exerted a great influence on many thinkers of
our day, and will exert a still greater influence to the
extent that the study of economic history is developed
and practically interpreted by laying bare the funda-
mental causes and intimate reasons for certain political
events. But it seems to me that the whole theory in its
most intimate bearings, or the whole theory in its en-
tirety, that it to say, as a philosophy, can never become
one of the articles ol universal popular culture. And
when I say philosophy, I know well that I may be mis-
understood. And if I were to write in German, I should
say Lehens-und-Welt-Anschauung, a conception of life
and the universe. For in order to become familiar

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 15

witli this philosophy, one must have a deep mental power
which must be accustomed to the difficulties of mental
combination. The attempt to handle it might expose
shallow minds, who are prone to make easy conclusions,
to the danger of saying silly things of sacred reason.
And we don't want to become responsible for the promo-
tion of such literary charlatanry.

II,

Rome, April 24, 1897.

Now permit me to pass on to the consideration of
certain prosaically small things, which, however, as small
things often do in the great affairs of the world, carry
considerable weight in our discussion.

To speak of the writings of Marx and Engels, since
they are particularly under discussion, have they never
been read in their entirety by any one outside of the
circle of the nearest friends and disciples, and outside of
the circle of the followers and direct interpreters, of
these authors? Have these writings, as a whole, never
been the objects of comment and illustration on the part
of people outside of the camp f ormed , around the tradi-
tions of the German Social-Democracy 1 1 refer especially
to those who have done the work of applying and ex-
plaining those writings, and particularly to the Neue
Zeit, the magazine which has held the front rank among
the publications of the party. In short, the question is
whether these writings have gathered around themselves
what modern thinkers call a literary environment in any
other country but Germany, and whether even in this
country such a development has not been but partial,
and accomplished by means which were not always
above criticism.

And how rare are many of these writings, and how
hard are some of them to find! Are there many who,
like myself, have had the patience to hunt for years for

16

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 17

a copy of the Poverty of Philosophy, which was but very
recently republished in Paris, or of that queer work,
The Holy Family; or who would be willing to endure
more hardships to secure a copy of the Neue Eheinische
Zeitung than a student of philology or history would
under ordinary conditions in reading and studying all
the documents of ancient Egypt ? I have the reputation
of being a praticed hand at seeking and locating books,
but I have never experienced more trouble than I did
' in the quest for that paper. The reading of all the
writings of the founders of scientific socialism has so far
been largely a privilege of the initiated!*

Is it a wonder, then, that outside of Germany, for
instance in France, and particularly there, many writers,
especially among publicists, should have felt a tempta-
tion to draw the elements for the formation of a Marxism
of their own making from criticisms of our adversaries,
from incidental quotations, from hasty snatches taken
out of special articles, or from vague recollections ? This
took place all the more easily, since the rise of socialist
parties in France and Italy gave voice more or less to
representatives of alleged Marxism, although in my
opinion it would be inexact to call them so. But this
gave to literary men of all sorts the easy excuse of
believing, or making others believe, that every speech
of an agitator or politician, every declaration of prin-
ciples, every newspaper article, and every official party
action, was an authentic and orthodox revelation of the
new doctrine in a new church. Was not the French

♦Quite recently Franz Mehring has undertaken to publish a
collection of all the less known writings of Marx and Engels
from 1840 to 1850, and among them appeared also "The Holy
Family." "The Poverty of Philosophy" is now published in
English by the Twentieth Century Press of London.

18 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Chamher of Deputies, about two years ago, on the point
of discussing Marx's theory of value? And what are
we to say of so many Italian professors who quoted and_
discussed for years books and works which notoriously
had never reached our latitude 1 Soon after that George
Adler wrote those two shallow and inconclusive books of
his,* in which he offered easy treasures of bibliography
and copious quotations to all who were looking for com-
fortable instruction and a chance to plagiarise. One
might truly say that Adler had read much and sinned
much.

I': Historical materialism is in a certain sense all there

f

is to Marxism. Before it surrounded itself with a
literature written by competent thinkers, who could
develop and continue it, Marxism passed among the
peoples of neo-Latin speech through innumerable mis-
takes, misinterpretations, grotesque alterations, queer
travesties, and gratuitous inventions. No one has a right
to place these things on the ledger of a history of
Socialism, Bfut they could not but cause much em-
barrassment to those who were eager to create a socialist
culture, especially if they belonged to the ranks of pro-
fessional students.

You are familiar with the fantastic story told by Croce
in Le Devenir Social of that blond Marx who is supposed
to have founded the International at Naples, in 1867.
I could tell other similar stories. I could tell you of a
student who came to my house, some years ago, to have
at least one personal look at the famous Poverty of
Philosophy. He was quite disappointed. "It is a serious

*I refer to the "Geschichte der ersten sozialpolitischen Ar-
beiterbewegung in Deutschland," and "Die Grundlagen der
Karl Marx' sclien Kritilt," wliich were pillaged alsp in Italy by-
cheap critics.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 19

book on political economy?," he said. "Not only seri-
ous," said I, "but also hard to read and in many points
:obscure." He could not understand it at all. "Did
you expect," I continued, "a poem on the heroes of the
attic, or a romance like that of the poor young man?"

The farfetched title of The Holy Family has given to
some an excuse for some queer tales. It is the singular
fate of that circle of Young-Hegelians, among whom was
at least one man of mark, Bruno Bauer, that they should
be known to posterity through the ridicule which two
young writers heaped upon them. And to think that
this book, which would appear dry, hard to understand,
and harsh to most French readers, is really not very
notable, except for the fact that it shows the way in
which Marx and Engels, after they had thrown off the
burden of Hegelian scholasticism, began to extricate
themselves from the humanitarianism of Feuerbach!
And while they were developing into what later became
their own theory, they were still to a certain extent im-
bued with that true socialism which later on they them-
selves ridiculed in the Manifesto.

But apart from the ridiculous stories which have been
circulated about these two, there is one which has
developed in Italy, and there is nothing to laugh about.
This is the case of Loria. It is so much the more sad,
since just in these last years, in spite of the great difficul-
ties surrounding it, a socialist party has been in process
of formation in Italy, which in program and intent
represents the tendencies of international socialism, so
far as the conditions of our country will permit, and
tries to accomplish its work. It is to be regretted that
just at this period some people, either students or ex-
students, should have taken it into their heads to pro-

20 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

claim Loria, now as the authentic author of the theories
of scientific socialism, now as the discoverer of the
economic interpretation of history, now as this, then as
that, however contradictory it might be. Loria has thus
been acclaimed, all in the same breath, but without his
knowledge and consent, as a champion of Marx, as an
enemy of Marx, as a substitute, a superior, and inferior
of Marx. Well, this misunderstanding is now a thing
of the past. And peace be to its memory. Since the
Social Problems of Loria have been translated into
French, many of your countrymen will wonder how it
was possible that he could be mistaken, not so much for
a socialist of some sort— for this might have been con-
sidered a sign or design of ingeniousness — but as a man
who continued the work of Marx and improved on it.
The very idea makes one's hair stand on end.

However, so far as France is concerned, you may rest
easy about these anecdotes of model intuition. For it is
not only true that sins are committed outside and inside
of the walls of Troy, but it is also an axiom which every
one will accept who does not belong to the insane cate-
gory of misunderstood geniuses, that no one comes too
late into the world to do his duty. And in the present
case it is so much less too late, as we may truthfully say
in the words of Bngels, written to me a short time before
his death: "We are as yet at the very beginning of
things."

And because we are still in the first beginnings, it
seems to me that the German socialist party should con-
sider it its duty to get out a complete critical edition of
the works of Marx and Bngels, in order that students
may be able to occupy themselves with these theories
with a full understanding of their causes and get their

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 21

knowledge of them with as little inconvenience as possible
from the first sources. This edition should be supplied
from case to ease with prefaces containing statements
of fact, with foot notes, references, and explanations.
It would alone be a meritorious work to deprive second-
hand book dealers of the privilege to make objects of
indecent speculation of the rarest copies of old writings.
I can tell a story or two about that. Works which have
already appeared in the form of books or pamphlets
should be supplemented by newspaper articles, mani-
festoes, circulars, programs, and all those letters which,
although written to private people, have a political and
scientific value because dealing with matters of public
and general interest.

Such an enterprise can be undertaken- only by the
German speaking socialists. Not that Marx and Engels
belong only to Germany, in the patriotic and chauvinist
sense of the term, such as many mistake for nationality.
The form of their brains, the course of their productions,
the logical order of their mode of seeing things, their
scientific spirit, and their philosophy, were the fruit and
outcome of German culture. But the substance of their
thought and teaching deals with social conditions, which
up to the time of their mature years developed for the
greater part outside of Germany. It is rooted especially
in the conditions created by that great economic and
political revolution which from the second half of the
eighteenth century had its basis and development over-
whelmingly in England and France. Both of them were
in every respect international spirits. But nevertheless
only the German socialists, from the Communist Club
to the Erfurt program, and to the last articles of the
prudent and experienced Kautsky, have that continuity

22 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and persistency of tradition, and that assistance of con-
stant experience, whicli are necessary in order that a
critical edition of these works may find in the things
themselves and in the memories of men the data required
for making it complete and true to life. And it is not
a question of selection. The entire scientific and political
activity, all the literary productions, of the two founders
of critical socialism, even if they were written for the
occasion of the hour, should be made accessible to the
reader. It is not a matter of compiling a Corpus juris
or a Testamentum juxta canonem receptum (a code of
laws or a testament according to received canons) . It is
a matter of collecting an elaborate series of writings, in
order that they may speak directly to all who may wish
to read them. Only in this way can the students of other
countries have all the sources at their disposal. Those
who got their learning in some other way, through un-
reliable reproductions or vague recollections, gave rise
to the strange phenomenon that until very recent times
there was not a single work on Marxism outside of the
German language written on the strength of documen-
tary criticism. And often such works came from the
pens of writers of other revolutionary parties, or other
schools of socialism. A typical case of this kind is that
of the anarchist writers, for whom, especially in France
and Italy, the founder of Marxism seems generally not
to have existed at all, unless it be as the man who
whipped Proudhon and who opposed Bakunin, or as the
head of that which is the greatest crime in their eyes,
namely the typical representative of political socialism
and therefore— what infamy!— of parliamentarian so-
cialism.
All these writings have one common foundation. And

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 23

this is historical materialism, taken as a threefold theory,
namely as a philosophical method for the general under-
standing of life and the universe, as a critique of polit-
ical economy reducible to certain laws only because it
represents a certain historical phase, and as an inter-
pretation of politics, above all of those political move-
ments which are necessary and serviceable for the march
of the working class toward socialism. These three
aspects, which I enumerate abstractly, as is always the
custom for purposes of analysis, form one single unity
in the minds of the two authors. For this reason, their
writings, with the exception of Engels' Anti-Diihring
and the first volume of Capital, never appear to literary
men of classic traditions to have been written according
to the canons of the art of book writing. These writings
are in reality monographs, and in most cases they are the
outgrowth of special occasions. They are fragments of
a science and politics in a process of continuous growth.
Others, of course not mere chance comers, must and can
continue this work. In order to understand them fully,
these writings should be arranged biographically. And
in such a biography we shall find, so to say, the traces
and imprints, the marks and reflections, of the genesis
of modem socialism. Those who are not able to follow
up this genesis, will look in those fragments for some-
thing which is not in them, and ought not to be in them,
for instance, answers to all the questions which historical
and social science may ever present in their vast and
variegated experience, or a summary solution of the
practical problems of all time and place. To illustrate,
in the discussion of the Eastern question, in which some
socialists present the singular spectacle of a struggle
between idiocy and heedlessness, we hear on all sides

24 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHT

references to Marxism !* The doctrinaires and theorisers
of all sorts, who need intellectual idols, the makers of
classic systems good for all eternity, the compilers of
manuals and encyclopedias, will in vain look in Marxism
for that which it has never offered to anybody. These
people conceive of thought and knowlege as things which
have a material existence, but they do not understand
that thought and knowledge are activities in process of
formation. They are metaphysicians in the sense in
which Engels used this term, which, of course, is not
the only possible meaning. In the present case I mean
to say that these men are metaphysicians in the sense in
which Engels applied this term to them by enlarging
upon that characteristic which Hegel bestowed upon
ontologists like "Wolf and others like him.

But did Marx, although he is unexcelled as a publicist,
ever pretend to pose as an accomplished writer of history,
while he penned from 1848 to 1860 his essays on con-
temporaneous history and his memorable newspaper
articles? And did he, perhaps, fail in this, because it
was not his vocation, and because he had no aptitude for
it? Or did Engels, when he wrote his Anti-Diiliring,
which is to this day the most accomplished work of
critical socialism and contains in a nutshell the whole
philosophy required for the .thinkers of socialism, ever

*While I am arranging these letters for publication, at the
end of September, 1901, there comes to my desk "The Eastern
Question," by Karl Marx, London, Sonnenschein edition, pages
XVI and 656, in great octavo, with copious index and two
geographical maps. It is a carefully edited reproduction, by
Eleanor Marx and Edward Aveling, of the articles which Karl
Marx wrote from 1853 to 1856 on the Eastern question, mainly
in the "New York Tribune." It is a miracle of literary work-
manship. I note in passing that when Marx wrote political
articles he did not lose himself in a cloud of doctrinairlsm
and exposition of principles, but aimed to make himself clear
and understood.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 25

dream of exhausting the possibilities of the knowable
universe in his short and exquisite work, or of laying
down forever the outlines of metaphysics, psychology,
ethics, logic, and whatever may be the names of the other
sections of the encyclopedia, which were chosen either
for intrinsic reasons of objective division, or for reasons
of expediency, comfort, vanity, by those who profess to
be teachers? Or is Marx's Capital perhaps another one
of those encyclopedias of all economic learning, with
which especially the professors, above all in Germany,
overstock the market?

This work, of three large volumes in four not very
small books, may be likened to a colossal monograph as
distinguished from so many encyclopedic compilations.
Its main object is to demonstrate the origin and produc-
tion of surplus-value (under the capitalist system) and
then to show the manner in which the surplus-value is
divided by the combination of production with the circu-
lation of capital. The basis of the analyses is the theory
of value, which is a perfection of an elaboration made
by economic science for a century and a half. This
theory does not represent an empirical fact drawn from
vulgar induction, nor a simple category of logic, as some
have chronicled it. It is rather the typical premise
without which aU the rest. of the work is unthinkable.
The matter of fact premises, namely precapitalist society
and the social genesis of wage-labor, are the starting
points of the historical explanation of the origin of
present capitalism. The mechanism of circulation, with
its secondary and minor side-laws, and finally the pheno-
mena of distribution, viewed in their antilihetical and
relatively independent aspects, form the means by which
we arrive at the concrete facts as they are given by the

26 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

obvious movements of everyday life. The facts and
processes are generally presented in their typical forms,
the supposition being that all the regular conditions of
capitalist production are in full force. Other modes
of production are discussed only so far as they have
already been outgrown and to show the way in which
they were outgrown, or if they still survive, the extent
to which they become obstacles of capitalist production
is taken into consideration. Marx therefore quotes fre-
quently illustrations from descriptive history, and then,
after stating his actual premises, he gives a genetic ex-
planation af the way in which these premises go through
their typical development, once that the conditions of
their interrelation are given. Thus the morphological
structure of capitalist society is laid bare. Marx's work
is therefore not dogmatic, but critical. And it is critical,
not in the subjective meaning of the term, but because
it draws its criticism from the antithetical and contra-
dictory nature of the things themselves. Even when
Marx comes to the descriptive portions of historical refe-
ences, he never loses himself in vulgar conceptions, whose
secret consists in avoiding an inquiry into the laws of
development and in simply pasting upon a mere enume-
ration and description of events such labels as "histori-
cal process, development, or evolution". The guiding
thread of the inquiry is the dialectic method. And this
is the ticklish point which throws into the saddest of con-
fusions all those readers of Capital who carry into its
perusal the intellectual habits of the empiricists, meta-
physicians, and authors of definitions of entities con-
ceived for all eternity. The fastidious questions raised
by many concerning the alleged contradictions between

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 27

the first and the third volume* of this work reveal them-
selves on closer scrutiny as results of a misapprehension
of the dialectic method on the part of these critics. I
refer here merely to the spirit in which the dispute has
been waged, not ' to the particular points which have
been raised. For it is a fact that the third volume is by
no means a finished work and may be open to criticism
even on the part of those who agree with its general
principles. The contradictions noted by the critics are
not contradictions between one book and another, are
not due to a failure of the author to stick to his pre-
mises and promises, but are actual contradictions found
in capitalist production itself. When expressed in the
shape of formulae, these phenomena appear to the think-
ing mind as contradictions. An average rate of profit
based on the total capital invested, regardless of its
organic composition, that is to say, regardless of the pro-
portion between its constant and variable part; prices
formed on the market by means of averages which fluct-
uate widely around the value of commodities; simple
interest on money owned as such and loaned to others for
investment in business ; ground-rent, that is to say, rent
on something which was not produced by anybody's
labor : these and other refutations of the socalled law of
value are actual contradictions inherent in capitalist pro-
duction. By the way, that term law confuses a good
many. These antitheses, however irrational they may
appear, actually exist, beginning with the fundamental
irrationality that the labor of the wage worker should
create a product greater than its cost (wages) for him

•I have in mind especially the polemic writings of Bohm-
Bawerk and Komorzynski. To my surprise, the work of the
first-named, entitled, "Karl Marx and the Close of his System,"
has been^, treated very indulgently by Conrad Schmidt In the
supplement of "Vorwarts," April 16, 1897, No. 85.

28 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

who hires it. This vast system of economic contradic-
tions (thanks be to Proudhon for this term) appears in
its entirety as a sum of social injustices to all sentimental
socialists, rational socialists, and all shades of declaiming
radicals. The honest people among the reformers desire
to eliminate these injustices by means of honest legal
efforts. When we now compare, after a lapse of fifty ,
years, the presentation of these antinomies, in their con-
crete details as shown in the third volume of Capital,
with the general outlines given in The Poverty of Philo-
sophy, we readily recognise the nature of the dialectic
thread which holds these analyses together. The anti-
nomies, which Proudhon wanted to solve abstractedly on
the ground that the reasoning mind condemned them in
the name of justice (and this mistake assigns him a
certain place in history), are now seen to be contradic-
tions in the social structure itself, so that the very nature
of the process engenders contradictions. When we realise
that irrationalities are born of the historical process it-
self, we are emancipated from the simplemindedness of
abstract reason and understand that the negative power
of revolution is relatively necessary in the cycle of the
historical development.

Whatever may be said about this grave and very in-
tricate question of historical interpretation, which I
shall not venture to treat exhaustively as an incident to
a letter, the fact remains that no one will succeed in
separating the premises, the methodical process, the in-
ferences and conclusions of this work, from the actual
world in which they are developed and the living facts
to which they refer. No one can ever reduce its teaching
to a mere Bible, or to a recipe for the interpretation
of the history of any time and place. There is no more
insipid and ridiculous phrase than that which calls

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 29

Marx's Capital the Bible of Socialism. The Bible, which
is a coUection of religious works and theological essays,
was made in the course of centuries. And even if
Capital were our Bible, the knowledge of Socialism alone
would not make the socialists omniscient.

Marxism is not, and will not be, confined to the writ-
ings of Marx and Engels. The name stands even now as
a symbol and compendium of a manysided tendency and
a complex theory. A great deal is still lacking before
Marxism can become a full and complete theory of all
phases of history which have so far been traced to their
respective forms of economic production, a theory which
shall regulate the pace of political development. In
order to accomplish that, those who wish to devote them-
selves to a study of the past from the point of view of
this new method of historical research must submit
the original sources to a new and accurate test, and
those who wish to apply it to the practical questions of
present-day politics must find special modes of orientation.
Since this theory is in its very essence critical, it cannot
be continued, applied, and improved, unless it criticises
itself. Seeing that it is a question of clarifying and
deepening definite processes, no catechism will hold good,
no diagrammatic generalisation will serve. I received a
proof of this in the course of this year, I proposed to
lecture at the university on the economic conditions of
Upper and Middle Italy at the end of the 13th, and the
beginning of the 14th century, with the principal object
of explaining the origin of the agricultural and city pro-
letariat and thereby finding a practicable way of tracing
the rise of certain communistic movements and revealing
as a final conclusion the somewhat obscure vicissitudes
of the heroic life of Fra Doloino. It certainly was my
intention to be and remain a Marxian. But I cannot

30 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

avoid assuming the responsibility for the things which I
said at -my own risk, because the sources on which I
based my studies were those which are handled by all
other historians, of all the other schools and tendencies,
and I could not ask Marx for advice, because he had
nothing to offer concerning these particular facts.

It seems to me that I have given a satisfactory reply
to the principal question which recurs not only in your
preface, to which I have particular reference, but also
in various articles written by you for Le Devenir Social.
Of course, I shall have to take up still other questions.
But your principal question turned on this point : What
reasons are to blame for the fact that historical mate-
rialism has so far been spread so little and developed so
poorly 1

"Without prejudice to the things which I shall say in
my following letters— you see that I hold out a nice
threat of still more wearying talk— you should experi-
ence no great trouble in making your own reply to
another question which you asked especially in certain
book reviews, and which runs about as follows (at least
this is the way in which I interpret it) : How is it that
so many have tried to complete this imperfect under-
standing and elaboration of Marxism, now by the help
of Spencer, now with positivism, in general, now with
Darwin, now with any other gift of the gods, showing
an evident inclination— what shall I say — to Italianize,
Frenchify, Russianize this historical materialism ? "Why
did they forget two things, namely that this theory
carries with it the conditions and expressions of its own
philosophy, and that it is essentially international in
origin and substance 1

However, I shall have to continue my letters also for
this reason.

III.

Rome, May 10, 1897.

To speak onee more of the two founders of scientific
socialism, I must confess that I use this term not without
apprehension, lest the false use made of it in certain
quarters might have rendered it almost ridiculous, par-
ticularly when it is supposed to stand for a sort of
universal science. If these two men had only been, if not
saints of the legendary kind, at least makers of schemes
and systems, whose classic form and sharp outlines would
have lent themselves easily to admiration ! But no, sir !
They were critical and aggressive thinkers, not only in
their writings, but also in their method of doing things.
And they never exhibited either their own personalities
or their own ideas as examples and models. They pro-
claimed indeed the revolutionary nature of the things
in the social processes of history, but not in the spirit of
men who measure great historical events by the yardstick
of their fantastic and impulsive personality. Hence the
scorn of the many! Had they been at least like those
loving professors, who descend occasionally from their
pedestals in order to honor poor and sinful humanity
with their advice and strut around among them in the
garb of a protector and guardian of the social question!
But they did just the reverse. They identified them-
selves with the cause of the proletariat, and they became
inseparable from the conscience and science of the prole-
tarian revolution. While they were in every respect

31

82 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

thorough revolutionaries (although not impassioned or
emotional), they never suggested any conspiratory plans,
or political schemes, but explained the theory of their
new polities and aided in its practical application, in the
way which the modern working class movement indicates
and requires as an actual necessity of history. In other
words, incredible as it may seem, they were something
more than simple socialists. And as a matter of fact,
many who were not more than just simple socialists, or
even still simpler makers of revolutions, often looked
upon them, if not with suspicion, at least with contempt
and aversion.

I should never get done if I tried to enumerate all the
reasons which for many long years retarded an objective
discussion of Marxism. You are well aware that certain
writers of the left wing of the revolutionary parties in
France treat historical materialism, not in the way that
is customary in dealing with gifts of the scientific spirit,
which are certainly subject to criticism like all of science,
but as a personal thesis of these two authors, who, how-
ever notable and great they may be, remain for those
people always but two among the other leaders of so-
cialism, that is to say, two among so many other X's in
the universe!* To be plain, I will say that only such
good or bad arguments have been advanced against this
theory as are always obstacles and stumbling blocks in
the way of new ideas, especially among professional wise
men. Frequently objections arose also from a very special
motive. The theories of Marx and Engels, namely, were
regarded as opinions of comrades and measured accord-
ing to standards of sympathy or antipathy aroused by
these comrades. Such are the bizarre results of prema-

*I Invite those X's to a joint concourse.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 33

ture democracy that we are not permitted to exempt
anything from the control of incompetents, not even
logic !

But there are other reasons. When the first volume of
Marx's Capital appeared in 1867, it came to the profes-'
sors and academic writers, especially of Germany, like a
blow on their heads. It was then a period of great in-
activity in economic science. The historical school had
not yet produced those ponderous, and often useful,
volumes which later appeared in Germany. In France,
Italy, and even Germany, the very commonplace pro-
ductions of that vulgar economy, which had obliterated
the critical spirit of the great classic economists between
1840 and 1860, were leading a precarious existence.
England had taken to John Stuart Mill, who, although
a professional logician, was always suspended between
the yes and the no in matters of importance, like one of
the well-known characters on our comic stage. No one
had then given a thought to that new economics which
the Hedonists have lately produced. In Germany, where
Marx shoud have been read first, for evident reasons,
and where Rodbertus remained almost unknown, the
mediocre spirits ruled the situation, prominent among
them that famous writer of erudite and minute notes,
Roscher, who loved to encumber quite clear passages with
nominal and often senseless definitions. The first volume
of Capital appeared just in time to disillusion the minds
of the professors and academicians. They, the learned
bearers of titles, especially privileged in the so-callad
land of thinkers, were expected to go to school! .They
had either been lost in the minute particulars of erudi-
tion, or had tried to make a school of apologetics of poli-
tical economy, or had bothered their heads to find a

34 SOCIALISM AND PHITiOSOPHY

plausible way of applying to their own country the con-
clusions of a science grown in the entirely different con-
ditions of another country. And thus all those pro-
fessors of the land of the learned par excellence had
forgotten the art of analysis and critique. Capital com-
pelled them to begin their studies from the bottom. They
had to get an entirely new foundation. For this work,
while coming from the pen of an extreme and determined
communist, did not show a trace of subjective protest or
. scheming, but was a strictly and rigorously objective
analysis of the process of capitalist production. There
was evidently something more terrible in this revolution-
ary journalist of 1848 and exile of 1849 than a mere
continuation or complement of that socialism which the
bourgeois literature of all countries dreamed of having
definitely overcome as a political expression since the
fall of Chartism and the triumph of the sinister head of
the coup d'etat in France. It became necessary to study
economics anew. In other words, this science opened
once more a critical period. To give the devil his due,
it must be admitted that the German professors after
that date, that is to say, beginning with 1870, and still
more since 1880, undertook the critical revision of
economics with that diligence, persistence, good will, and
laboriousness, which the learned of that country have
always exhibited in aU lines of research. Although any-
thing written by them can hardly ever be fully accepted
by us, it is nevertheless true that the field of economics
was newly plowed by their labors in the manner custom-
ary among professors and academicians, and that now
this science can no longer be committed to mind as
easily as any lazy man's lesson. Of late the name of Marx
has become so fashionable that it is heard in the lecture

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 35

rooms of universities as one of the preferred subjects of
critique, polemics, and reference, and no longer merely
in terms of regret and vulgar invective. The social
literature of Germany is now fully impregnated with
memories of Marx.

But this could not take place in 1867. Capital made
its appearance just when the International hegan to be
talked about and make itself feared for a short while,
not only on account of the thing that it stood for in-
trinsically, and what it might have become had not the
Franco-German war and the tragic incident of the
Commune dealt it heavy blows, but also on account of
the blood-curdling mouthings of some of its members and
the stupid revolutionary maneuvers of some intruders.
Was it not notorious that the Inaugural Address of the
International Workingmen's Association (from which
address every socialist may still learn much) came from
the pen of Marx ? And was there not good reason to at-
tribute the more determined actions and resolutions of
the International to him? Well then, if a revolutionist
of such undoubted loyalty and acumen as Mazzini could
not distinguish between the International to which Marx
devoted his work and the Bakounist Alliance, is it a
wonder that the German professors were disinclined to
enter into a critical discussion with the author of
Capital? How was it possible to get on terms of friendly
discussion with a man who was, so to say, hung in effigy
in all laws of exception made for the use of Pavre and
consorts, and was held morally ..responsible for all the
deeds of the revolutionaries, even their errors and extra-
vagancies, although he had at the same time written a
masterly work, like a new Ricardo, who studied im-
passibly the economic processes after the manner of

36 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

geometricians? This fact is to blame for that queer
method of polemics which made the intentions of the
author responsible for his conclusions. It was allied
that Marx had thought out his scientific analysis for the
■purpose of giving strength to certain tendencies. This
led for many years to the writing of sensational attacks
in place of objective analyses.*

But the worst of it was that the effects of this grossly
false critique made themselves felt even in the minds of
socialists, particularly in those of the young intellectuals
who took up the cause of the proletariat between 1870
and 1880. Many of the fiery remodelers of the world
undertook to proclaim themselves champions of Marxian
theories, choosing as legal tender precisely the more or
less spurious Marxism of our adversaries. The case is
clearest in Germany where it left its traces in the party
discussions and in its small literature. The most para-
doxical point of the whole mistake is this: Those who
incline toward easy inferences, as most newcomers do,
thought that the theories of value and surplus-value, as
ordinarily presented in popular expositions, contained
here and now the canons of practical activity, the motive
power, the ethics and legal basis, for all proletarian

*"Marx starts out from the principle .... that the value of
commodities is exclusively determined by the quantity of
labor contained in them. Now, if there is nothing to the value
of commodities but labor, if a commodity is nothing else but
crystalized labor, then it is evident that it should wholly belong
to the laborer and that no part of it should be appropriated by
the capitalist. Hence, if the laborer gets only a part of the
value of his product, this can be only the result of usurpation."
Thus wrote Loria on page 462 of the "Nuova Antologia,"
February, 1895, in the noted article, "The Posthumous Work of
Karl Marx." I quote these words, which are not the only ones
of this sort written by Loria, merely as an illustration of the
way in which free versions of Marx may be given in the style
of Proudhon. And on such free versions were based those
mental vagaries from 1870 to 1880 which I mention later on.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 37.

eflEorts. Isn't it a great injustice that millions and
millions of human beings should be robbed of the fruits
of their labor ? This statement is so simple and so poig-
nant that aU the modern BastUes ought to fall at the
first scientific blast of the new trumpets of Jericho ! This
easy simplicity was strengthened by many of the theore-
tical errors of Lassalle, such as those which were due to
his relative lack of knowledge, for instance the iron law
of wages, a half-truth which becomes a total error when
not fully explained, or those which in his case may be
regarded as expedients of agitation, for instance his
famous co-operatives with state help. Whoever is in-
clined to confine his whole socialist confession of faith to
the simplest inference from the recognized exploitation
to the demand for the emancipation of the exploited,
which is invitable only because it is just, has but to make
another step on the slippery path of logic in order to
reduce the whole story of the human race to a case of
moral conscience and consider its successive development
in social life as so many variations of a continued error
of calculation.

Between 1870 and 1880, and a little after, a sort of
new utopianism formed around this vague conception of
a certain something entitled scientific socialism, which,
like fruits out of season, was very insipid. And what
else is utopianism without the genius of a Fourier and
the eloquence of a Considerant but a matter for ridicule ?
This new utopianism, which still flourishes here and there,
has played quite a role in France. It has left its imprint
in the struggles with other sects and schools fought by
our brave friends in the Revolutionary Labor Party, who
from the first endeavored to develop socialism along the
lines of class-consciousness and the progressive conquest

38 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

of the political power by the proletariat. Only through
the experience of this practical test, only by the daily
study of the class-struggle, only through testing and re-
testing the forces of the proletariat so far as they are
already organized and concentrated, are we enabled to
estimate the chances of socialism. Those who proceed
differently, are and remain Utopians, even in the revered
name of Marx.

Against these new Utopians, against the outgrown re-
presentatives of the old schools, and against the various
side-lines of contemporaneous socialism, our two authors
continuously applied the' rays of their critique. In their
long career they took their science as a guide for their
practical work, and out of their practical experience they
culled the material and received directions for deepening
their science. They never treated history as though she
were a mare which they could straddle and trot around,
nor did they look for formulae by which to keep alive
momentary illusions. They were thus compelled, by the
necessity of circumstances, to measure swords in bitter,
sharp, and relentless controversies with all those whom
they considered as dangers to the proletarian movement.
Who does not remember, for instance, the Proudhonists,
who pretended to destroy the state by reducing it by
stealth, as though it were closing its eyes and pretending
not to see ? Or the one-time Blanquists, who wanted to
seize the powers of state by force and then start a revolu-
tion? Or Bakounin who sneaked surreptitiously into the
International and compelled the others to throw him
out ? Or here and there the pretenses of so many differ-
ent schools of socialism, and the competition of so many
leaders ?

From the time that Marx routed the ingenuous Weit-

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 39

ling in a personal debate* to his trenchant critique of the
Gotha program (1875), which was not published until
1890, his life was one continual battle, not only with the
bourgeoisie and the politics r^resented by it, but also
with the various revolutionary and reactionary currents
which wrongfully or spitefully assumed the name of
socialism. All those struggles were fought out in the
International, and I speak of the International of
glorious records, which left its imprint to this day on all
the present-day activity of the proletariat, not of its sub-
sequent caricature.** The greater bulk of the contro-
versies with Marxism, a Marxism which the imagination
of certain critics has reduced to a mere variety of political
schooling, is due to the traditions of those revolutionaries
who, especially in the Latin countries, recognised in Ba-
kounin their leader and master. What is it that the
anarchists of our day are repeating but the lamentations
and mistakes of those past days ?

Twenty years ago, the majority of the Italian public,
with the exception of those scientists who masticated over
and over, in their homes, the things which they had read
in books, knew nothing of the two founders of scientific
socialism but what had been preserved through recollec-
tions of the invectives of Mazzini and the malice of
Bakounin.

And so critical communism, which has been admitted so
tardily to the honor of discussion in the circles of official
science, met in its own camp with the very worst of
adversities, the enmity of its own friends.

•The Russion AnnenoofE was a personal witness of this debate
and referred to It later, among many other reminiscences of
Marx, in the "Vyestnik Tevropy," 1880. (Reproduced in the
"Neue Zeit," May, 1883.

**Thls was written before the founding of the present Inter-
national Social Bureau and does not refer to it — Publisher.

40 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

All those difficulties have now either been overcome, or
are at least for the greater part about to disappear.

Not the intrinsic virtue of ideas, which have never had
any feet for walking, nor hands for grasping, but the
sole fact that the programs of socialist parties, wherever
such parties arose, assumed the same tendencies, induced
the socialists of all countries, through the imperious sug-
gestion of conditions, to place themselves at the visual
angle of the Communist Manifesto. Don't you think that
I wrote my essay in memory of this manifesto at an
opportune time? The exploiting classes create for the
exploited classes almost everywhere the same conditions.
For this reason, the active representatives of these ex-
ploited travel everywhere the same road of agitation and
follow the same points of view in ther propaganda and
organization. Many call this practical Marxism. Be it
so! What good is there in quarreling about words?
Even though Marxism reduces itself for many to mere
words, or to the worship of Marx's picture, his plaster of
Paris bust, or his features on a button (the Italian police
frequently exhibit their deep feeling for such innocent
symbols), the fact semains that this symbolical un-
animity is a proof of the incipient unification in reality,
and of the growing unity of thought and action in all
proletarian movements of the world. In other words, the
international solidarity is shaping itself at long range
through material conditions. Those who use the lan-
guage of the decadent writers of the bourgeoisie, mistak-
ing the symbol for the thing, are now saying that this
is a personal triumph of Marx. It is as though one had
said that Christianity was a personal triumph of Jesus of
Nazareth (or why not say outright his success ?) , of Jesus
who divested himself of his quality of the son of a god

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 41

that assumed hmaan shape, and who, in the soft and
weak language of your Renan, became a man of such
childlike divinity as to seem a god.

In view of this intuitive shaping of socialist politics,
which is tantamount to proletarian politics, the divergen-
ces of the old schools have fallen to the ground. Some of
these were in fact nothing hut distinctions of the letter
and vain hairsplitting, which had to give way to such
useful distinctions as arise spontaneously through the
different ways of handling practical problem?. In the
concrete reality, in the positive and prosaic development
of socialism, it matters little whether all its hea4s,
leaders, orators, and representatives conform to one
theory, or do not conform to it, whether or not they pro-
fess it publicly. Socialism is not a church, not a sect,
that must have its fixed dogma or formula. If so many
speak nowadays of the triumph of Marxism, such an
emphatic expression, when stated in a crudely prosaic
form, simply means that henceforth no one can be a
socialist, unless he asks himself every minute : What is
the proper thing to think, to say, to do, under the present
circumstances, for the best interests of the proletariat?
The day has gone by for such dialecticians, or rather
sophists, as Proudhon, for the inventors of personal
social systems, the makers of private revolutions.* The
practical indication of that which is practicable is given
by the condition of the proletariat, and this is appreci-
able and measurable precisely because Marxism (I mean
the thing, not the symbol) supplies us with a progressive
standard by its theory. The two things, the measurable

•What I wrote in May, 1897, was certainly not disproved by
the events in Italy, in May, 1898. Those events were not the
work of any one party, but a veritable case of spontaneous
anarchy.

42 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and the measure, are one from the point of Tiew of the
historical process, especially when they are seen at a
convenient distance.

And yon can actually see that to the extent that 'the
outlines of the practical policy of socialism become
distinct, all the old poetical and fantastic ideas are dis-
persed and leave but traces in phraseology behind them.
At the same time the critical study of the science of
economics has been growing in every respect in the field
of academic research. The exile Marx has made himself
at home, after his death, in the circles of official science,
at least as an adversary who will stand no fooling. And
just as the socialists have come by so many different
roads to the understanding that a revolution cannot be
made, but makes itself through a process of growth, so
that public has been gradually developing for whom
historical materialism is a true and distinct intellectual
necessity. You have seen that many have stuck their
noses into this theory during recent years, even though
it was done badly or with evil intent. Now, if you take
a good look, you will note that we have not gone back-
ward. Since my young days I have often heard it re-
lated how Hegel had said that only one of his pupils
understood him. This anecdote cannot be verified, be-
cause this one disciple has never been identified. But
the same thing may repeat itself infinitely, from system
to system, from school to school. For, as a matter of
fact, intellectual activity is not due purely to personal
suggestion, and thouglit is not communicated mechanic-
ally from brain to brain as such. Nor are great systems
diffused unless similar social conditions dispose and
incline many minds towards them at the same time.
Historical materialism will be enlarged, diffused, special-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 43

ized, and will have its own history. It may vary in
coloring and outline from country to country. But this
will do no great harm, so long as it preserves that kernel
which is, so to say, its whole philosophy. One of its
fundamental theses is this: The nature of man, his
historical making, is a practical process. And when I
say practical, it implies the elimination of the vulgar
distinction between theory and practice. For, in so
many words, the history of man is the history of labor.
And labor implies and includes on the one hand the
relative, proportional, and proportioned development of
both mental and manual activities, and on the other the
concept of a history of labor implies ever the social form
of labor and its variations. Historical man is always
human society, and the presumption of a presocial, or
supersocial, man is a creature of imagination. And there
we are.

Here I pause, mainly to avoid repeating myself, and to
save you from a repetition of the things which I have
written in my two essays. Ton certainly do not feel the
need of such a repetition, and most assuredly I do not.

IV,

Rome, May 14, 1897.

To return to my first argument, it seems to me that
the following question is uppermost in your mind: By
what means, and in what manner, would it be possible to
inaugurate a school of historical materialism in France ?
I don't know whether I am at liberty to answer this
question, without running the risk of being numbered
among those journalists of the old school who, with
imperturbable assurance, gave good advice to Europe
at the imminent peril of being almost never heeded.
As a matter of fact, they never were. I shall try to be
modest.

In the first place, it ought not to be so very difficult to
find editors and publishers in France who should be
willing to publish and spread accurate translations of
the works of Marx, Bngels, and others that may be
desired. That would be the best way to make a start. I
am aware of the fact that in the art of translating one
comes across some queer difficulties. I have been reading
German for more than thirty-seven years, and I have
always noted that we people of the Latin tongue get into
strange linguistic and literary byways, whenever we
attempt to translate from the German. That which
seems alive, clear, direct, in German, becomes often
enough, when translated into Italian; cold, pointless, and
even outright jargon. In such translations as are com-
monly current the convincing effect is lost with that of

44

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 45

the meaning. In such a vast work of popularisation as
that which I have in mind, it would be desirable, aside
from the faithful interpretation of the original text, to
supply in the prefaces, foot-notes, and comments of the
translated writings the materials for that easy assimila-
tion which is already in process or prepared in the writ-
ings grown on native soil.

Languages are not accidental variations of universal
speech. They are even more than simple external means
of communication expressing thought and mind. They
are the conditions and limits of our internal activity,
which for this reason, among many others, is not in-
debted to accident for the various national modes and
forms. If there are any internationalists who ignore
this, they should rather be called confusionists and
ignorers of form. Of such are those who get their in-
formation, not from the ancient apocalyptics, but from
that specious Bakounin who proclaimed even the equali-
sation of the sexes. The assimilation of ideas, of lines
of thought, of definite tendencies, of plans, which have
found mature expression in the literature of a foreign
language, is a rather difficult case of social pedagogy.

Since this last expression has slipped from my pen,
permit me also to confess that it is not the continuous
growth of success at elections which fills me more than
anything else with admiration and vivid hope, when I
closely examine the previous history and present con-
dition of the German Social-Democracy. Instead of
speculating over the vote as a measure of the future,
according to the often erroneous calculations of inference
and statistical combination, I feel a special admiration
for this truly new and imposing case of social education.
This is the great point that in such a vast number of

46 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

men, especially of laborers and little bourgeois, a new
consciousness is in process of formation, to which the
direct influence of economic conditions, which cause
them to struggle, and the propaganda of socialism as a
means and aim of development, equally contribute. This
digression calls to my mind a recollection. I was either
the first, or certainly one of the first, in Italy to call the
attention of those of our laborers, who were and are able
to move along the line of the modern proletarian class-
struggle, to the example of Germany. But it never
entered my mind to assume that the imitation of Ger-
many should relieve us in any way from spontaneous
action. It never occurred to me to follow the example
of those monks and priests, who were for centuries
almost the exclusive educators of an already disintegrat-
ing Italy, and who blithely taught the art of- poetry by
ordering their pupils to learn Horace's Art of Poetry by
heart. It would be queer, if you, Bebel, with your
merits, activity, and wisdom, were introduced among us
in the garb of another Horace ! It would surprise even
my friend Lombroso, who hates Latin worse than the
starvation fever.

In short, there are still other difficulties, of a greater
scope and weight. Even if able and experienced writers
and editors, not only in France, but also in the other
civilized countries, undertook to spread translations of
all the works on historical materialism, it would only
stimulate, but not form and keep alive in the various
nations those creative energies which produce and
nourish vigorously a certain intellectual movement. To
think is to produce. To learn means to produce by
reproduction. "We do not really and truly know a thing,
until we are capable of producing it ourselves by thought,

SOCIALISM AND PniLOSOPIlY 47

work, proof, and renewed proof. We do this only by
virtue of our own powers, in our social group and from
the point of view which we occupy in it.

And now think of France, with its great history, with
its literature, which was so dominant for centuries, with
its patriotic ambitions, and with its very peculiar ethno-
logical and psychological differentiation, which shows
itself even in the most abstract products of the mind!
It would not become me, an Italian, very well to pose as
the defender of your chauvinists, upon whom you heap
so much well-deserved opprobrium. But let us remember
what happened in the eighteenth century. The revolu-
tionary thought came from more than one part of the
civilised world, from Italy, England, Germany, but it
was not European unless it assumed the guise of French
spirit. And the European revolution was at bottom the
French revolution. This imperishable glory of your
nation weighs, like all glories, upon the people. It
burdens you with a deep-rooted prejudice. But are not
prejudices likewise forces, at least impediments of pro-
gress, if nothing else ? Paris will no longer be the brain
of the world, if for no other reason but that the world
has no brain, except in the imagination of some shallow
sociologists.* Neither is Paris to-day, nor will it ever be
ia the future, that sacred Jerusalem of revolutionists from
an parts of the world which it seemed to be once upon a
time. At all events 'the future proletarian revolution
will have nothing in common with an apocalyptic millen-
ium. And in our day, special privileges are doomed
for nations as well as for single individuals. So Engels

•Long before symbolism and analogies with organisms be-
came the fashion In sociology, I had occasion to criticise this
curious tendency in an article reviewing the "Social Psycho-
logy" of Lindner (in "Nuova Antologia," December, 1872,
pages 971-989).

48 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

observed, justly. By the way, it would be worth the
while of you French to read what he wrote in 1874
concerning the Blanquists, who were trying to foment
a violent revolution, so shortly after the catastrophe of
the Commune.* But when all is said, when the peculiar
conditions of French agriculture and industry are taken
into account, which retarded so long the concentration
of the labor movement, and when the proper blame is
recorded against the various petty leaders and heads,
who kept French Socialism so long split and divided,
then the fact always remains that historical materialism
will not make any headway among you, so long as it
gives the impression of being simply a mental elabora-
tion of two Germans of great genius. By this expression
Mazzini intensified the national resentment against these
two authors, who, being communists and materialists,
seemed made to order for the purpose of routing the
idealistic formula of Patriotism and God.

In this respect, the fate of the two founders of scienti-
fic socialism was almost tragical. They were often ,
regarded as the two Germans by so many who were
jingoes even though revolutionaries. And Bakounin,
whose mind inclined so strongly toward invention, to put
it mildly, accused them of being champions of Pan-
Germanism, although these two Germans, who left their
country as exiles from the days of their young manhood,
were received with studied silence by those professors
for whom servility is an act of patriotism. As a matter
of fact these professors avenged themselves. For Capital,
whose entire presentation is rooted in the traditions of

«In an article entitled, "Program der blanqulstischen Kom-
mune Fluchtllnge," published in the "Volksstaat," No. 73, and
later reproduced on pages 40-46 of the pamphlet, "Inter-
nationales aua dem Volksstaat," Berlin, 1894.

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 49

classic economy, not excluding the ingenious and often
talented writers of Italy in the 18th century, speaks only
with sovereign contempt of such men as Roscher and
others like him. \\Bngels, who devoted himself with so
much ability to the amplification and popularisation of
the results of researches made y>y the American Morgan,
had the settled conviction that the thing which he justly
called classic philosophy had reached its dissolution with
Feuerbach. And when he wrote his Anti-Duhring, he
showed a frank unconcern for the philosophers of his
time, the neocriticism of his countrymen, an unconcern
which is explicable, even if not excusable, in his case, but
which is ridiculous in other socialists who affect to imi-
tate him./; Their tragic fate was, so to say, inherent
in their mission. They had given themselves heart and
soul to the cause af the proletariat of all nations. And
for this reason their scientific work finds in every nation
only that reading public which is capable of a similar
intellectual revolution. In Germany, where Social-
Democracy stands firmly in serried ranks, owing to histo-
rical conditions, among them above all the fact that the
capitalist class has never been able to break its ties with
the old regime (look at that emperor who speaks with
impunity in the language of a vice-god and who is
nothing but a Frederick Barbarossa acting as a commer-
cial traveler for goods made in Germany), it was quite
natural that the ideas of scientific socialism should find
a favorable soil for their normal and progressive diffu-
sion. But none of the German socialists— at least I hope
not — will ever think of looking upon the ideas of Marx
and Engels from the simple point of view of the rights
and duties, merits and demerits, of comrades of the
party. Here is what Engels wrote not so very long

50 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

ago*: "It will be noticed that I do not call myself a
soeial-democrat in these articles, but a communist. I do
this for the reason that the name of social-democrats was
given in those days to many who had not written upon
their banners the demand for the socialization of all the
means of production. By a social-democrat people un-
derstood in France a republican democrat, who had
genuine, but indefinite, sympathies for the working class,
men like Ledru-RoUin in 1848, and like the socialist
radicals in 1874, who were tainted with Proudhonism.
In Germany, the Lasallians called themselves social-
democrats. Although the great majority of these grad-
ually recognised the necessity of the socialization of the
means of production, nevertheless one of the essential
points of their public program remained productive
associations with state help. It was, therefore, quite
impossible for Marx and myself to choose such an elastic
term for the designation of our specific point of view.
To-day it is different and this term may pass muster.
Nevertheless it will always be illfitting for a party whose
program is not generically socialistic, but directly com-
munistic, and whose ultimate political aim is to do away
with aU forms of state, and therefore also with "demo-
cracy."

It seems to me that the patriots— I do not use this
term derisively— have good ground for consolation and
comfort. For there is no foundation for the conclusion
that historical materialism is the intellectual patrimony
of one sole nation, or that it was to become the privilege
of any clique, circle, or sect. Its objective origins belong

•On page 6 of the preface of the pamphlet, "Internationales
aus dem Volksstaat," which contains articles written by Engels
between 1871-75. This preface, mark well, bears the ' date of
January 3, 1894.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 51

equally to France, England, and Germany. I shall not
repeat at this place what I said in another letter con-
cerning the form of the thought which developed in the
minds of our two authors under the conditions created
hy the intellectual culture of Germany in their youth,
especially by philosophy, while Hegelianism either lost
itself in the walks of a new scholasticism, or gave way to
a new and more ponderous criticism. But at the same
time there existed the great industries of England with
all their accompanying miseries, with the ideological
counterbalance of Owen and the practical counteraction
of the chartist agitation. There were furthermore the
schools of French socialism, and the revolutionary tradi-
tions of the West, out of which were just developing the
forms of a truly proletarian communism. What else is
Capital but the critique of that political economy which,
as a practical revolution and its theoretical expression,
had reached full maturity only in England, about the
sixties, and which had barely begun in Germany ? What
else is the Communist Manifesto but the conclusion and
explanation of that socialism which was either latent
or manifest in the labor movements of France and Eng-
land? All these things were continued and brought to
the point of critique, not excluding the philosophy of
Hegel, by the immanent critical character of dialectic
advance and its transformations. -That is the process of
that negation which does not consist in the contentious
and oppositional discussion of one concept with another,
of one opinion with another, but which rather verifies
the things which it denies, because that which is made
negative by it either contains the material conditions or

52 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the intellectual premise for the continuation of the
process.*

France and England may resume their parts in the
elaboration of historical materialism without seeming to
commit an act of mere imitation. Should the French
never write truly critical books on Fourier and Saint
Simon, showing that they were, and to what extent they
were, true precursors of contemporaneous socialism?
Isn't there enough occasion to devote literary work to
the events of 1830 to 1848, so that one may see that the
theory of the Communist Manifesto was not their nega-
tion, but rather was their outcome and solution? Isn't
there a demand for an exhaustive work on the coup
d'etat of Louis Napoleon, as a counterpart for the
Eighteenth Brumaire of Marx, which, though a work of
great genius and insuperable in its aim, is nevertheless
largely a work of the hour and colored by publicist
methods? Does not the Commune still await its final
critical treatment ? Has the great revolution of the 18th
century, whose literature is colossal so far as its general
history goes, but very small when it comes to details, ever
been thoroughly treated with an insight into the class
movements of which it consisted, and as a typical
illustration of industrial history? To be brief, does not
the whole modern history of France and England offer
to the students of those countries a far greater scope for
the illustration of historical materialism than that
afforded until recently by the conditions of Germany?
The conditions of Germany were, since the Thirty Years'
"War, greatly complicated through obstacles to progress
and remained almost always enveloped in the mists of

♦For this reason Hegel and the Hegelians, who so frequently
made use of word symbols, employed the term "aufheben."
which may signify hoth to remove and elevate.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 53

various speculations in the heads of those who lived
under them and observed them. The Florentine chronic-
lers of the 14th century would be moved to merriment by
those misty ideas.

I have dwelt upon these particulars, not in order to
assume the airs of a counsellor of France, but in order
to wind up with the statement that, with the present bent
of Latin miads, it is not an easy thing to get them
imbued with new ideas, if one undertakes to approach
them merely with abstract forms of thought. But they
wiU assimilate new ideas quickly and effectively, when
offered in the shape of stories or essays which have some
of the elements of art about them.

I return for a moment to the question of translating.
Engels' Anti-Duhring is that work which ought to get
an international circulation before any other. I know
few books which are equal to it in compactness of
thought, multiplicity of view-points, and effectiveness in
bringing home its points. It may become mental medi-
cine for young thinkers, who generally turn with vague
and uncertain touch to books which are said to deal with
socialism of some kind. This was what happened when
this book appeared, as Bernstein wrote about three years
ago in the Neue Zeit, in an article commemorating the
event. This work of Engels remains the unexcelled book
in the literature of socialism.

Now, this book was not written for a thesis, but rather
for an anti-thesis. With the exception of some detach-
able portions which were made into a book by themselves
and in this shape made a tour of the world (Socialism,
Utopian and Scientific), this book has for its guiding
thread the criticism of Eugene Diihring, who had in-
vented a philosophy and a socialism of his own. But

54 SOCULIBM AND PHILOSOPHY

what person not living in the circles of professed scien-
tists, and how many readers of other than Germaxi
nationality, should take an interest in Mr. Diihring?
Well, unfortunately every nation has too many Diih-
rings. "Who knows what book against some other know-
it-all an Engels of some other nationality might have
written, or might still write ? The effect of this work on
the socialists of other countries should be, in my opinion,
to supply them with those critical aptitudes which are
required for writing all other Anti-Somethings needed
for the rebuttal of those who try to thwart or infest the
socialist movement in the name of so many confused
notions in sociology. The weapons and methods of cri-
tique will, of course, vary from country to country
according to the requirements of local adaptation. The
point is to cure the patient, not the disease. That is the
method of modern medicine.

To try to act differently would be to invite the fate of
those Hegelians who came to the fore in Italy from 1840
to 1880, especially in the South, for instance in Naples.
Most of them were mere followers, but a few were strong
thinkers. On the whole they represented a revolutionary
current of great importance, owing to their traditional
scholasticism, their French esprit, and their philosophy
of the so-called common sense. This movement became
somewhat known in France. For it was one of these
Hegelians, Vera by name, and not the profoundest and
strongest of them, who supplied France with the most
readable translations o{ some of the fundamental works
of Hegel and accompanied them with copious com-
ments.* Now every trace, and even the memory, of this

*Vera wrote as late as 1870 a "Philosophy of History" in the
style of the strictest Hegelian, for which I roasted him In a
review written for the "Zeitschrift fiir exacte Philosophie," vol.
X, pages 79, ff., 1872.

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 55

movement has passed away among us after the lapse of
but a few years. The writings of these thinkers are not
found anywhere but in the shops of antiquarians and
second rate book dealers. This dissolution into nothing
of an entire scientific school of no mean account is not
due solely to the often unkind and little praiseworthy
vicissitudes of university life, nor to the epidemic spread
of positivism which gathers here and there fruits of a
rather demi-monde science, but to deeper causes. Those
Hegelians wrote, and taught, and held disputations
among themselves, as though they were living in Berlin,
or in Utopia, instead of Naples. They held mental con-
verse with their German comrades* They replied from
their pulpits, or in their writings, only to such criticisms
as were made by themselves, so that they carried on a
dialog which appeared as a monolog to their audience
and readers. They did not succeed in molding their
treatises and dialectics into books which looked like new
Intellectual conquests of the nation. This unpleasant
and unattractive recollection came to my mind when I
began writing the first of my two essays on historical
materialism, and there is now no reason why I should

•In Jact Rosenkranz, one of the leading- lights among the late
followers of Hegel, wrote a special work on "Hegel's Natur-
phllosophie und die Bearbeitung derselben durch den italien-
Ischen Philosophen A. Vera," Berlin, 1868. I quote a few
passages from this w.otTs. which illustrate my point: "It is in-
teresting to observe the way in which the. German of Hegel
comes to life again in the Italian language. Messieurs. . . . (here
follows a list of names) . . . .and others rendered the thoughts
of Hegel with a precision and facility which would have
appeared impossible in Germany ten years ago." (Page 3.)
"Vera is the strictest systeraatiser whom Hegel has ever found,
and who follows his master step by step with the greatest
devotion." (Page 5.) "If after this any one excuses himself
with the difficulty of understanding Hegel in German, he should
be advised to read him in the Italian translation of Vera. He
will understand that, always assuming that he has intelligence
enough to understand any philosophy." (Page 9.)

56 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

not follow them up with others. But then I asked
myself quite often : How shall I go about it to say things
which will not appear hard, foreign, and strange to
Italian readers? You teU me that I succeeded, and
perhaps it is so. Would it not be a singular case of
discourtesy, if I should be my own judge and discuss
the praise which you bestow upon me?

About five years ago I wrote to Engels : "In reading
the Holy Family I remembered the Hegelians of Naples,
among whom I lived in my earliest youth, and it seems
to me that I understood and appreciated that book more
than others could who are not familiar with the peculiar
inside facts of that queer satire. It seemed to me that
I had personally seen that quaint circle in Charlotten-
burg at close range, whom you and Marx satirised so
funnily. I saw before my mind's eye, more than any one
else, a certain professor of esthetics, a very original and
talented man, who explained the romances of Balzac hy
deduction, made a construction of the cupola of the
Church of Saint Peter, and arranged the musical instru-
ments in a genetic series ; and who by degrees, from nega-
tion to negation, by way of the negation of the negation,
arrived ultimately at the metaphysics of the unknowable,
which he, although unfamiliar with Spencer, but in a
way himself an unglorified Spencer, called the unname-
dble. I, also, lived in my young days, as it were, in such
a training hall, and I am not sorry for it. For years my
mind was divided between Hegel and Spinoza. With
youthful ingenuity I defended the dialectics of the for-
mer against Zeller, the founder of Neokantianism. The
writings of Spinoza I knew by heart, and with loving
understanding I gave expositions of his theory of affec-
tions and passions. But now all these things seem as far

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 57

away in my recollection as primeval history. Shall I, too
have presently my negation of the negation ? You en-
courage me to write on communism. But I have always
misgivings when it comes to doing things which are
beyond my strength and which have little effect in
Italy."

"Whereupon he replied But I shall make a period

here. It seems almost impolite to reproduce the private
letters of a man, especially so soon after his death, unless
the public interest urgently demands it. At all events,
compared with writings which are purposely written for
publication, quotations from private letters carry little
conviction and little weight, even if they refer to current
topics and are limited to questions of theory and science.
With the growth of the interest in historical materialism,
and in the absence of a literature which would illustrate
it generally and specifically, it came about that Engels,
during the last years of his life, was asked, and even tor-
mented with endless questions, by many who enrolled
themselves as voluntary and free students in the advent-
urous and outlawed university of socialism, of which
Engels was a professor without a chair. This accounts
for his published letters, and for many of them which
have not been published. From those three letters,
which were recently reproduced by Le Devenir Social
from a Berlin review and a Leipsic paper, it appears
that he was somewhat afraid lest Marxism might present-
ly develop into a sort of cheap doctrinairism.

To many of those who profess to be scientists, not in
the adventurous university of the coming people, but in
that of present official society, it happens that they are
caught on the wing by students and seekers of iaforma-
tion and that, with one foot lifted, they answer every

58 SOOULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

question as though they had the explanation for every-
thing stamped upon their brains. The most conceited of
the professors, not wishing to deprive science of its
priestly saintliness and pretending that it consists wholly
of materialised knowledge instead of being mainly a skill
in directing the formation of knowledge, give offhand
answers and thereby frequently succeed in satirising
themselves, after the manner of that delightful Mephisto-
pheles in the guise of a master of all four faculties. Few
have the Socratic resignation to reply: I don't know, but
I know that I don't know, and I know what might be
known, and what I might know, if I had made those
efforts, or accomplished those labors, which are necessary
in order to know; and if you will give me an infinite
number of years, and an infinite capacity for methodical
work, I might extend my knowledge almost indefinitely.

This is .the substance of the practical mental revolution
of the theory of understanding implied by historical ma-
terialism.

Every act of thinking is an effort, that is to say, new
labor. In order to perform it, we need above all the
material of mature experience and the methodical instru-
ments, made familiar and effective by long handling.
There is no doubt that an accomplished task, or a finished
thought, facilitates the production of new thought by
new forces. This is so, first, because the products of
yesterday remain incorporated in the writings and other
representative arts of to-day, and in the second place,
because energies accumulated by us internally penetrate
and endow labor, thereby keeping up a rhythmic move-
ment. And it is precisely this rhythmic process which
constitutes the method of memory, of reasoning, of ex-
pression, of communication, and so forth. But neverthe-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 59

less this is not saying that we ever become thinking ma-
chines. Every time that we set about producing a new
thought, we need not only the external materials and im-
pulses of actual experience, but also an adequate efEort
in order to pass from the most primitive stages of mental
life to that superior, derived and complex stage called
thought, in which we cannot maintain ourselves, unless
we exert our will-power, which has a certain determined
intensity and duration beyond which it cannot be
exerted.

This brain work, which makes itself known in our own
consciousness as a fact concerning only our own indivi-
dual personality, is going on in each one of us only in so
far as we are beings living together in a certain environ-
ment which is socially, and therefore historically, devel-
oped. The means of social activity, made up on one side
of the conditions and instruments, on the other of the
products of co-operative labor and specialization, consti-
tute together with the free gifts of nature the materials
and incentives for our internal activity. These are the
sources of those secondary, derived and complex habits
by which we become aware that we are parts of a whole
outside of the boundaries of our bodily personality, that
we are parts of a certain mode of life, custom, institution,
church, country, historical tradition, and so forth. These
practical interrelations of social life, connecting indi-
vidual with individual, are the ground in which are
rooted and materialised those intellectual expressions of
public thought, social soul life, national spirit, etc.,
which are objects of speculation for those sociologists
and psychologists who belong to the bad school of
metaphysics, and whom I would call symbolists and
symbol readers. These practical interrelations breed

\v

60 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

those common currents which give to individual thoilght,
and to the science following from it, the character of a
true social function.

So here we have arrived once more at the philosophy
of practice, which is the pith of historical materialism. It
is the immanent philosophy of things about which people
philosophize. The realistic process leads first from life
to thought, not from thought to life. It leads from
work, from the labor of cognition, to understanding as
an abstract theory, not from theory to cognition. It
leads from wants, and therefore from various feelings of
well-being or iUness resulting from the satisfaction or
neglect of these wants, to the creation of the poetical
myth of supernatural forces, not vice-versa. In these
statements lies the secret of a phrase used by Marx,
which has been the cause of much racking for some
brains. He said that he had turned the dialectics of
Hegel right side up. This means in plain words that the
rhythmic movement of The Idea Itself (the spontaneous
generation of thought!) was set aside and the rhythmic
movements of real things adopted, a movement which
ultimately produces thought.

Historical materialism, then, or the philosophy of
practice, takes account of man as a social and historical
being. It gives the last blow to all forms of idealism
which regard actually existing things as mere reflexes,
reproductions, imitations, illustrations, results, of so-
called a priori thought, thought before the fact.. It
marks also the end of naturalistic materialism, using this
term in the sense which it had up to a few years ago.
The intellectual revolution, which has come to regard
the processes of human history as absolutely objective
ones, is simultaneously accompanied by that intellectual

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 61

revolution which regards the philosophical mind itself as (

a product of history. This mind is no longer for any-
thinking man a fact which was never in the making, an
event which had no causes, an eternal entity which does
not change, and still less the creature of one sole act. It
is rather a process of creation in perpetuity. /

r

/'

v.

Rome, May 24, 1897.

Picking up my; thread at the point where I dropped
it the other day, I want to say that I think you are
perfectly right in placing the problem of general philo-
sophy on the order of business. I refer in this respect
not only to your preface, the effect of which I am try-
ing to heighten by my prolonged conversation in writing,
but also to some of your articles in Le Devenir Social
and to some of the private letters which you were kind
enough to address to me. You have an idea that histo-
rical materialism may seem to be suspended in the air
so long as it has for opponents other philosophies which
do not harmonize with it, and so long as it does not find
the means to develop its own philosophy, such as is
inherent and immanent in its fundamental facts and
premises.

Have I grasped your meaning correctly?

You refer explicitly to psychology, ethics, and meta-
physics. By this last term you intend to convey what
I, owing to other mental habits and other methods of
teaching, would call either the general theory of cognl-
tion, or the general theory of the fundamental forms of
thought. I prefer these, or similar, terms partly out of
very great caution, partly for fear of being misunder-
stood, and also in order not to run foul of certain pre-
judices. However, I pass over such auxiliary terms as
these. For on the field of science we are not bound to
stick slavishly to the significance which terms have in

62

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 63

the ordinary experience and the ordinary minds, unless
they are terms of every day life which science uses the
same as everybody else, when it calls bread— bread. But
those other terms were selected by ourselves, when we
fixed and developed certain concepts which we desired to
formulate comprehensively by means of convenient
words. It would be absurd for us to try to deduct the
meaning and essence of a science, for instance of chem-
istry, from the etymology of this word. For we should
be face to face with the most ancient Egypt, instead of
the name which signifies the yellow land on both sides
of the Nile from its mouth to the mountains!

I shall let you enjoy the company of the metaphysical
word in peace, if it suits you to rest content with that.
Away with such frivolities ! If anybody who wanted to
extend his catalogue were to catch the First Principles
of the now indispensable Spencer under the heading of
metaphysics, he would do no more and no less than the
librarian of Troy did, namely to paste so many labels
on the various essays dealing with the first principles of
philosophy (Aristotle used the same terms to denote
them), and no amount of commentary by ancient
writers, nor criticism by modern ones, has ever suc-
ceeded in bringing them up to the clearness and con-
sistency of a perfect book. Who knows but many would
now be glad to find out that, after all, the ancient Sta-
girite, who impressed his ideas upon the minds of man-
kind for so many centuries, and whose name was carried
as a banner in so many battles of the mind, was but
another Spencer of other times, who, solely through the
fault of time, wrote in Greek instead of English, and not
very good Greek either.

Tradition must not weigh upon us like a nightmare, it

64 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

must not be an impediment, an obstacle, an object of a
cult or of stupid reverence. "We agree pretty well on
that. But on the other hand, tradition is that which
holds us fast to history, I mean to say, it is that which
unites us with painfully acquired stages, which facilitate
labor and make for further progress. This distinguishes
us from brutes. It is only the long centuries of travail
which differentiate our history from that of animals.
Really, no one who devotes himself to some study, be it
ever so concrete, empirical, particular, minute, and de-
tailed, anywhere in actual life, can fail to admit that
there is a certain point where he feels the pressing want
of reconsidering all general concepts (categories) recurr-
ing in particular acts of thought, such as unity, multi-
plicity, totality, condition, end, the reason of everything,
cause, effect, progression, finite, infinite, and so forth.
Now, even if we do not stop very long to consider these
new and curious aspects, we are impressed with the
universal problems of cognition. These problems appear
to us as neccessarily existing. It is this suggestion of
inevitability which is the source and seat of that which
you call metaphysics, and which may also be called
differently.

The whole question is to know how these necessary
data are handled by us. The characteristic mark of the
classic thought, generally speaking, for instance of the
Grecian, is a certain ingenuousness in the use and hand-
ling of such concepts. On the other hand, the character-
istic mark of modern philosophy, again generally speak-
ing, is a methodical doubt, a critical attitude which
accompanies the use of these concepts like a suspicious
and cautious guard and searches them internally as well
as externally, in their wider bearings. The deciding

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 65

factor in the transition frOm ingenuousness to critical
analysis is methodical observation (which was limited in
scope and means among the ancients), and even more
than observation it is the careful and technically
accurate experiment (which was almost entirely un-
known among the ancients) . By experiment we become
co-workers of nature. We produce artificially things
which nature produces out of itself. Through the art of
experiment things cease to be mere rigid objects of
vision, because they are generated under our guidance.
And thought ceases to be a hypothesis, or a puzzling
forerunner of things, and becomes a concrete thing,
because it grows with the thiags, and keeps on growing
with them to the extent that we learn to understand
them.
\ \ The art of methodical experiment ultimately leads us
to the acceptance of the following simple truth: Even
before the rise of science, and in all human beings who
never embrace science, the internal activities,, including
natural reflection, constitute a process of growth, which
takes place in us while we f oUow the satisfaction of our
needs, and which implies the successive creation of new
conditions.* From this point of view, likewise, histo-
rical materialism is the outcome of a long development.
It explains the historical rise of scientific knowledge, by

•"The plays of childhood — I am in earnest — are the first be-
ginning and first fundament of all serious things in life. They
permit the immediate discharge and expression of the internal
activities, stimulate successive acts of observation, and promote
a gradual transition from one form of knowledge to another.
At the summit of this process arises the illusion that the
acquired control (of ourselves over ourselves) is an independent
power and the constant cause of those visible effects, which we
and others perceive objectively in our actions." — This you will
find on pages 13-14 of my work, THE CONCEPT OP LIBERTY.
A Psychological Study. Rome, 1878. It was written during
tlie acute stage of the crisis in psychology.

66 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

showing that this knowledge corresponds in quality, and
is proportional in quantity, to the productivity of labor.
In other words, science depends on our needs, ^

Now I turn to you, and approve of the kick which you
administer to agnosticism. For it is but the English
counterpart of German NeoJcantianism. There is but
one appreciable difference. Neokantianism represents in
the last analysis nothing but a certain academic line of
thought, which has supplied us with a better knowledge
of Kant and a useful literature of educated people.
Agnosticism, on the other hand, on account of its diffu-
sion among the people, is an actual symptom of the
present condition of certain social classes. The socialists
would have good grounds for believing that this symp-
tom is one of the evidences of the decadence of the
bourgeoisie. It certainly stands in marked contrast to
the heroic devotion to truth shown by the thought of the
precursors of modern history, such as Bruno and Spi-
noza, or to that conventional assertiveness, which was
typical of the thinkers of the 18th century, until the
classic German philosophy gradually came upon the
scene. It is still more at variance with the precision of
the modern means of research, which in our times have
increased to such an extent the dominion of human
thought over nature. It lacks that characteristic which,
according to Hegel, is essential for every philosophy,
namely the courage of truth. It gives the impression of
a cowardly resignation. Some of those Marxists, who
go by a short cut from economic conditions to mental
reflections, as though it were simply a matter of inter-
preting stenographic signs, might say that this unMow-
dble, which is held so sacred by a vast number of
quietists on the field of reason, is an evidence that the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 67

spirit of the bourgeois. epoch is no longer able to see
clearly through the world's arrangement, because capi-
talism, from which it receives its directions, is already
in a state of disintegration. In other words, the bour-
geoisie has an instinctive presentiment of its impending
ruin and therefore delivers itself over to a sort of
religion of imbecility. Such an assertion might even
seem to be ingenious and fine, although it cannot be
demonstrated. StiU, it somewhat resembles that great
number of absurdities which have been said by many in
the name of the economic interpretation of history.*

On the other hand, I say that this agnosticism renders
us a great service. By stating over and over again that
it is not given to us to know the thing itself, the inmost
nature of things, the final cause and fundamental reason
of phenomena, the agnostics arrive in their own way, by
a different road, namely by regretting the impossibility
of knowing this alleged mystery, at the same result that
we do, only we do not regret, but rather seek knowledge
without the assistance of the imagination. This result
is that we cannot think anything except things which
we ourselves experience, taking this word in its widest
meaning.

Just see what happened on the field of psychology. On
one side, the illusion was dispersed that psychic facts
may be explained by the assumption of a supernatural
entity. On the other side, the vulgar and more material
than materialistic idea was abandoned that thought is a
secretion of the brain. It was shown that psychic facts
are coupled to a specific organism, that this organism

•Some of these absurdities were cleverly illustrated by B.
Croce. See THE HISTORICAL THEORIES OP PROP. LORIA,
Naples, 1897; and CONCERNING THE COMMUNISM OP TOM-
MASO CAMPANBLLA, Naples, 1895.

68 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

itself was in a constant process of formation, that psy-
chic facts are accompanied by internal nerve processes,
so far as these processes are parts of consciousness. The
gross hypothesis of mechanical materialism was rejected,
according to which it was possible to observe the internal
activity, its maintenance and complications as a function
of consciousness, by external means, simply because we
may discover from day to day the corresponding con-
ditions in the nerve centers. And so we have arrived
at psychic science. It is incorrect, not to say erroneous,
to call this science a psychology without the soul. It
should rather be called the science of psychic products
without the myth of spiritual substance.

When Engels, in his Anti-Diihring, used the term
metaphysics in a deprecating manner, he intended pre-
cisely to refer to that way of thinking, conceiving, in-
ferring, expounding which is the opposite of a genetic,
and therefore dialectical, consideration of things. The
metaphysical way of thinking has the following charac-
teristics : In the first place, it regards as self dependent
things, as things independent of one another, those
modes of thought, which are in reality modes only to the
extent that they represent points of correlation and tran-
sition in a process ; in the second place, it regards these
modes of thought as existing before the fact, as pre-
existing, as types, or prototypes, of the weak and sha-
dowy reality of sense-perceptions. From the first point
of view, for instance, such thoughts as cause and effect,
means and end, origin and reality, and so forth, appear
merely as distinct terminals of different, and sometimes
opposite, kinds. Some of them seem to be only causes,
others only effects, and so forth. In the second case,
the world of experience seems to be disintegrating and

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 69

falling to pieces before our eyes, separating into sub-
stance and attribute, thing in itself and phenomenon,
possibility and obvious reality. The critique of Bngels
demands substantially and realistically that terminal
thought should not be considered as a fixed entity, but
as a function. For such terminal concepts are valuable
only in so far as they help us to think now, while we are
actively engaged in proceeding with new thought.

This critique of Engels, which may be improved in
many respects by more specific and precise statements,
particularly as regards the origin of the metaphysical
way of thinking, repeats in its own way the Hegelian
distinction between understanding, which defines oppo-
sites as such, and reason, which arranges these opposites
in an ascending series (Bruno would say: The divine art
of reconciling opposites, and Spinoza said : Every deter-
mination is a negation) .

The metaphysical way of thinking, when seen at a
distance, has some things in common with the origin of
myths. It is rooted in theology, which tries to make
articles of faith (which auto-illusion presents as objec-
tive facts, while they are subjective assumptions) plau-
sible to logical reason." How many miracles has that
myth of The Word performed! Such metaphysical
thoughts, using this term in a deprecating sense, as
indicating a certain stage of thought which interferes
with the formation of a new thought, are found in every
branch of human knowledge. What an enormous amount
of strength had to be spent by doctrinaire reflection on
the field of language study, before the diagrammatic illu-
sion of grammatical forms was replaced by their genesis !
This genesis is now sought and located in the various
stages of language composition, which is a process of

70 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

work and production, not a mere fact. Metaphysics in
this ironical sense exists, and will, perhaps, always exist,
in the words and phraseology derived from the expres-
sion of thought. For language, without which we could
neither grasp thought precisely nor formulate its expres-
sion, changes the thing it expresses at the same time
that it pronounces it. F,or this reason language has,
perhaps, always a mythical germ. No matter how much
we may perfect the general theory of vibrations, we shall
always say : The light produces such and such an effect ;
the heat operates so and so. There is always the tempta-
tion, (or at least the danger), to personify a process, or
its terminal points. By means of an illusory projection,
relations become things, and by cogitating farther upon
them these things become operative subjects. If we pay
attention to this frequent lapse of our mind into the
pre-scientific mode of using words, we shall discover in
ourselves the psychological data for the explanation of
the way, in which forms of thought were transformed
into objective entities, under different circumstances and
in other times. The Platonic ideas are typical of this
case. I call it typical, because it is the most plastic.
All history is full of such metaphysics, which is an evi-
dence of an immature mind not yet sharpened by self-
critique and re-enforced by experiment. The same rea-
sons, among many others, place in the same class such
things as superstition, mythology, religion, poetry, a
fanatic worship of words, a cult of empty forms. This
metaphysics leaves its traces also in that field of thought
which we call nowadays, conceitedly, science.

Does not such a metaphysical mode of thought obscure
the field of political economy ? Does not money, which
is originally but a medium of exchange and transforms

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 71

itself into capital only because it is combined with a
process of productive labor, become in the imagination
of some economists a self-originated capital, which se-
cretes interest by some inherent power ? For this reason,
that chapter in Marx's Capital, which speaks of the
fetishism of capital," is very important.* The science
of economics is full of such fetishes. The character of
a commodity, which the product of human labor assumes
only under certain historical conditions, under which
human beings live when a definite system of social inter-
relations exists, is regarded by some as an intrinsic
quality of the product from all eternity. Wages, which
cannot be conceived unless some people are under the
necessity of offering themselves for hire to other human
beings, are regarded as an absolute category, that is to
say, as an element of all gain, so that ultimately the
capitalist schemer adorns himself with the title of a man
who earns by his own merit the highest wages. And
what about the rent of the land— of the land, mind you.
I should never get done, if I wanted to enumerate all
those metaphorical transformations of relative condi-
tions into eternal attributes of men and things.

What have the crude expounders of Darwinism made
of the struggle for existence? An imperative, a com-
mand, a fate, a tyrant. They have forgotten about the
material circumstances surrounding the mouse and the
cat, the bat and the insect, the bumble bee and the clover.

»At present the hedonists, operating with the reason of their
time, explain interest as such (money which produces money)
by means of the differential value between the good of the
present and the good of the future. They make a psychological
concept of the assumption of risk, and other considerations of
matter of fact commercial practice. And then they operate
upon such matters by the help of mathematical processes which
are often factitious and fictitious.

72 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

The process of evolution, which is a nmtually balancing
expression of infinite movements giving rise to many-
complicated problems, not to one single theorem, is
suddenly transformed into one fantastic Evolution.
Consequently the vulgarisers of Marxian sociology ren-
der conditions, relations, interconnections of common
economic life, into a certain fantastic something which
dominates us, frequently because these expounders of
Marxism lack literary ability. The whole thing is made
to look as though there were still other matters to con-
sider but merely the natural elements of the problem,
such as persons and persons, renters and house owners,
land owners and farm hands, capitalists and wage
earners, gentlemen and servants, exploited and exploit-
ers, in one word, human beings living in definite condi-
tions of time and place, in various degrees of mutual
dependence on account of the peculiar manner of own-
ing and using the social means of production.

The undoubted recurrence of the metaphysical vice,
which sometimes directly coincides with mythology,
should make us indulgent toward the causes and condi-
tions, whether directly psychic, or more generally social,
which have in past times retarded the advent of critical
thought, which is consciously experimental and stands
cautiously on guard against verbalism. There is no use
in going back to Comte's three epochs. Of course, the
question of the quantitative predominance of theological
and metaphysical forms in the various epochs of human
history must be discussed. But it must not be con-
sidered in the light of an exclusively qualitative differ-
ence from the socalled scientific epoch. Human beings
have never been exclusively theological or metaphysical,
nor will they ever be exclusively scientific. The merest

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 73

savage, who is afraid of his fetish, knows that it costs .
less tronble to descend with the river than to swim
against its current, and the performance of his most
elementary labors implies a certain amount of experi-
ence and science. On the other hand, we have in our
day scientists, whose minds are clouded by mythologies.
Metaphysics, as the opposite of scientific accuracy, has
not yet become so prehistoric a fact as to be on the same
level with tattooing and cannibalism.

There is no one, I hope, who would place the definite
victory over metaphysics entirely to the credit of histo-
rical materialism, at least over metaphysics as under-
stood heretofore, according to Engels. This victory is
rather a particular case in the development of anti-
metaphysical thought. It would not have happened, had
not critical thought developed long ago. We have to
square accounts in this matter with the entire history of
modern science. When Don Ferrante of the Promessi
Sposi* (in the 17th century, mind you) died of the
pest while denying its existence, because it was not men-
tioned in the ten categories of Aristotle, scholasticism
had already received the first hard and decisive blows.
He was the last convinced scholastic, and I hope Leo
XIII will not object to this statement because it inter-
feres with his business. And from then until now we
have a long history of positive conquests of thought, by
which the essence of independent philosophy, which dist-
inguished it from science, namely the theory of cogni-
tion, was either absorbed, or eliminated, or otherwise
reduced and assimilated. On this road of scientific
thought we meet with such things as empirical psycho-

•"The Engaged Lovers," a novel by Alessandro Manzoni. —
Translator.

74 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

logy, language study, Darwinism, tlie history of institu-
tions, and criticism, strictly socalled. I should also add
positivism, were I not afraid of being misunderstood.
As a matter of fact, taking positivism as a whole and
summarily, it has been one of the many forms through
which the thought of mankind has approached a con-
ception of philosophy, which does not reason before the
fact, but is the outcome of the immanent nature of
things. We need not be surprised, on this account, if
the generic similarity of historical materialism to so
many other products of the contemporaneous thought
and knowledge has led many, who deal with science in
the style of literary men or magazine readers, into
making the misake of acting under superficial impres-
sions, following the impulses of erudite curiosity, and
flattering themselves that they could make the Marxian
theory more complete by this or that addition. "We shall
have to put up with such tinkering for a while. Many
are led into this error through the habit, which is at
present common in all the branches of modern science,
of considering everything from the point of view of
evolution and growth. Since everybody is talking about
evolution, the inexperienced and superficial think that
everybody means the same thing. You have very pro-
perly directed your attention to the various points of
differentiation in historical materialism, which, let me
add, are characteristic of a science which is based on
dialectic and revolutionary communism. You did not
propose to settle the question, whether Mr. Marx could
go arm in arm with this or that other philosopher, but
you rather strive to ascertain, what kind of philosophy
is the logical and necessary outcome of the Marxian
theory.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 75

It is for these reasons that I have not objected, and do
not object now, to the use of metaphysical language on
your part, taking this term in a sense which is not
disparaging. Marxism deals fundamentally with gene-
ral problems. And these refer, on the one hand, to the
limits and forms of cognition, and on the other to the
relations of mankind to the rest of the knowable and
known universe. Isn't this what you intend to convey?
For this very reason did I devote my attention to the
most general questions in the second of my essays. But
I treated the subject in such a way that my intention
remained hidden.

Whoever considers historical materialism in its full
significance, will find that it presents three lines of
study. The first corresponds to the practical require-
ments of the socialist parties, demands the acquisition
of an adequate knowledge of the specific conditions of
the proletariat in each country, and adapts socialist acti-
vity to the causes, prospects, and dangers of complex
politics. The second may lead, and will certainly do so,
to a revision of the methods of writing history, for it
tends to establish this art on the field of class struggles
and social relations following from them, on the basis of
the corresponding economic structure, which every histo-
rian must henceforth know and understand. The third
consists in the treatment of the directing principles. In
order to understand and follow these, we must of necess-
ity be guided by the general points of view which you
indicate.

Now, it seems to me— and I have furnished the proof
in writing— that the adherence to general principles as
such does not necessarily imply a return to a formal
scholasticism, or to a disregard for the things from

76 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

which these general principles are deduced, so long as
we do not relapse into the ancient error of believing
that ideas are a sort of supernatural agency standing
above things, but still admit the inevitable division of
labor. It is certain that these three lines of study were
combined into one in the mind of Marx, and not only in
his mind, but also in his works. His polities were, in
a way, the practical application of his historical mate-
rialism, and his philosophy was incorporated in his cri-
tique of political economy, for this was his method of
dealing with history. But taking it for granted that
such a universal comprehension is the characteristic
mark of a genius who inaugurates a new line of thought,
the fact is that Marx himself carried his theory to its
full conclusion only in one case, and that is in Capital.
The perfect identification of philosophy, or of critic-
ally self-conscious thought, with the material of know-
ledge, in other words, the complete elimination of the
traditional distinction between philosophy and science,
is a tendency of our times. However, it is a tendency
which remains mostly in the stage of mere desire. It is
precisely this tendency to which some refer when claim-
ing that metaphysics has been completely overcome.
Others, again, who are more exact, suppose that a science
in its perfect state will have absorbed philosophy. The
same tendency justifies the use of the term scientific,
philosophy, which would otherwise be ridiculously
absurd. If this expression can ever have its practical
verification through the evidence of proof, it will be
done precisely by, means of historical materialism, as it
was in the mind and in the writings of Marx. There
philosophy is so much in the things themselves, and so
permeated with them, that the reader of that work feels

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 77

the effect, as though philosophizing were a natural func-
tion of the scientific method.

Should I stop here and make a confession? Or have
I only to limit myself to an objective discussion with you
of those points on which we can approach one another
in our aims ? If I had to be satisfied with the aphoristic
expressions which are typical of a confession, I should
say: a) The ideal of knowledge should be one in which
the antagonism between science and philosophy is at an
end; b) However, (empirical) science is in a process of
continual growth, multiplies in material and depart-
ments, and differentiates at the same time the instru-
ments used in the various lines, while on the other hand
the mass of methodical and formal knowledge contin-
ually accumulates under the name of philosophy; e)
For this reason the distinction between science and phi-
losophy will always be maintained as a provisional ele-
ment, in order to indicate that science is always in pro-
cess of growth and that this growth is largely accompa-
nied by self-critique.

It is sufficient to look at Darwin, in order to under-
stand how cautious we should be in affirming that hence-
forth science implies of itself the end of philosophy.
Darwin has certainly revolutionized the field of the
science of organisms, and with it the entire conception
of nature. But Darwin himself did not have the full
understanding of the import of his discoveries. He was
not the philosopher of his science. Darwinism as a new
view of life, and of nature, is beyond the personality
and intentions of Darwin himself. On the other hand,
some vulgar expounders of Marxism have robbed this
theory of its immanent philosophy and reduced it to a
simple way of deducing changes in the historical condi-

78 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

tions from changes in the economic conditions. Such
simple observations suffice to convince us that while we
may affirm that a perfect science is a perfect philosophy,
or that such a philosophy signifies but the highest degree
of elaboration of concepts (Herbart), we must not
authorize any one, in making such a statement, to speak
disparagingly of the thing we may call philosophy as a
matter of differentiation. Nor should we believe every
scientist who claims regardless of the mental develop-
ment at which he may stop that he has triumphed over
that bagatelle called philosophy or become its heir. And
therefore you did not ask an idle question, when you
inquired in substance : What will be the spirit in which
the advocates of historical materialism will look upon
the remaining philosophies ?

VI.

Rome, May 28, 1897.
In the scientific biography of our two great authors
there is a blank. A certain work of theirs wandered to
the printer in 1847. But for accidental reasons it re-
mained unpublished.* In that work, which remained
in the form of a manuscript, and which, so far as I
know, was never seen by any other outside author
since,** they squared accounts with their own conscien-
ces by coming to an understanding about their position
toward the other currents of contemporaneous philo-
sophy. There is no doubt that this account was closed
principally with the Hegelian conclusions and their ma-
terialistic counterpart in the theories of Feuerbach.
Aside from general reasons connected with the philoso-
phical movement of that time, this opinion is further
strengthened by various passages from magazine and
newspaper articles, which were recently published by
Struve in the Neue Zeit, as souvenirs of former contro-
versies of Marx. But what was the full mental position
of these two writers ? How far did their bibliographical
horizon reach? What attitude did they assume toward
the other scientific struggles, which later on blossomed
out into so many revolutions, in the field of natural
philosophy as well as in that of historical philosophy,

•See Marx, "Critique of Political Economy," author's preface,
page 13. — Also Engels, "Feuerbach," author's preface, page 33.

•*I once asked Engels to show this manuscript, not to me,
but to the anarchist Mackay, who was very much Interested in
Stirner. But Engels replied to me that the manuscript had
been too much gnawed by mice.

79

80 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and how much did ttey know about those things? We
have no satisfactory replies to these questions. Of
course, we understand that one might be sorry to have
published in his young years some writings which one
would write quite differently in his advanced years.
But still it is so much harder for us to get access to
them, when we wish to study these authors. Engels him-
self was of the opinion that this work had produced the
desired effect, inasmuch as it had cleared up the question
for those who had written it.

Subsequently, after the authors had taken their own
road, they did not write any more on questions of philo-
sophy in the strict meaning of the term.* Not only
their occupation as practical agitators, as publicist wri-
ters, as devotees of the proletarian movement, influenced
them in this respect, but also their own mental inclina-
tions tended to take them away from the occupation of
professional philosophers. It would, therefore, be a vain
undertaking to search step by step for the personal
opinions which they entertained in their studies and
reading of new conclusions of science, whether these
were in line with their new method of historical research
or opposed to it. It is certain that we must recognize as
auxiliaries, and as eases analogous to the rise of histori-
cal materialism, the recently developed psychology, the
trenchant critique of professional philosophy, the school
of industrial history, Darwinism in its strict and wide
meaning, the growing tendency in history to recognise
natural phenomena, the discovery of the institutions of

*Of course, we except from this statement the first chapters
of "Anti-Duhring," which are, moreover, of a controversial
character, and Engels' "Feuerbach," which is substantially but
an extensive review of a certain book, interspersed with some
retrospective and personal observations of the author.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 81

prehistoric times, and the ever increasing inclination to
combine philosophy and science. But it would be ridi-
culous to apply the yardstick of an editor of some Criti-
cal Review, by which he measures new books, or of a
professor who lays before his pupils the successive im-
pressions of his own reading, to Marx and Engels. That
is not the way to estimate the work, which these two
thinkers may have done, or actually did, in assimilating
the fruits of contemporaneous science, these thinkers,
who looked at things from their own specific and speci-
fied point of view and used their historical materialism
as an individualised instrument of research and analysis.
This is substantially the mark of originality. To use this
term without such restrictions would be absurd. But
while they gave up philosophical writing in the strict
professional meaning of the term, they became the most
perfect types of philosophical scientists. This scientific
philosophy is for many but an unattainable desire, while
others make of it a means of telling the plain truth about
obvious facts of scientific experience in a new style of
phraseological affectation. Sometimes it is a general
form of rationalism, and after all it is not possible to
grasp it, unless one makes himself familiar with the par-
ticulars of real life in the penetrating way, which is
appropriate for a genetic method arising out of the
nature of things. Engels wrote recently in his Anti-
Diihring: "As soon as every individual science is con-
fronted with the necessity of coming to a clear under-
standing of its position in the general interrelation of
things and the knowledge of things, any special science
of the general interrelation becomes superfluous. No
portion of the entire philosophy of previous times will
then remain independent, except the theory of cognition

82 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and its laws, in other words, formal logic and dialectics.
All the rest of it will be absorbed by the positive science
of nature and history."

Anything is possible for the erudite, the seekers of
subjects for dissertations, the budding post-graduates.
They have made a stew of the ethics of Herodotus, the
psychology of Pindar, the geology of Dante, the entomo-
logy of Shakespere, and the pedagogy of Schopenhauer.
For stronger and better reasons they may speak of the
logic of Capital and construct a system of the philosophy
of Marx, duly specified and classified according to the
sacramental canons of professional science. That is a
matter of taste. For my part, I prefer the artlessness of
HerodotU;S and the ponderous style of Pindar to that
erudition which extracts their specific properties by the
help of posthumous analysis. I prefer to leave un-
touched the individuality of Capital, to which have con-
tributed, as to an organism, all the ideas and knowledge
which are distinguished by the name of logic, psycho-
logy, sociology, law, and history, in their strict meaning.
Also that rare flexibility and smoothness of thought have
contributed to it, which form the esthetics of the dialec-
tic method.

Of course, this book is, and will always be, subject to
particular analysis, in spite of this. But it will never
be refuted as a whole by the mere experimenters, the
scholastics who love nice definitions that are not assimi-
lated by the flow of thought, the Utopian thinkers of all
shades, especially the liberal Utopians and the liberta-
rians, who are more or less anarchists without knowing
it. It is an almost insuperable difftculty for some intel-
lectuals to merge themselves in the reality of social and
historical interrelations. Instead of taking society as a

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 83

whole, in which certain laws are generated by a natural
process and become the mutual relations of movements,
many feel the need of looking upon things as fixed, for
instance egoism here, altruism there, and so forth. A
typical case of this sort is that of the modern hedonists.
They are not satisfied with studying the social combina-
tion as seen from the point of view of the economic inter-
pretation, but resort to the expedient of evaluation as
the logical psychologic premise of economies. This ex-
pedient supplies them with a scale, and they study its
degrees as though these were the theoretical expressions
of definite types. One might as well study formal esthe-
tics by studying only degrees of pleasure. By means of
this scale, with its degrees of estimating needs, they
measure the things which they call good. They examine
the relations of things to the various degrees of this
scale, taking into account their available and obtainable
quantities, and in this way they determine the quality of
their values, the limits of their values, and their final
value. After they have thus constituted political econo-
mics on a basis of abstract generalities, which are in-
different to the things which nature freely gives as well
as to those which are produced in the sweat of the
human brow (and by the thankless labor of history),
they transform poor, obvious, and plain production, with
its familiar common life, which the theoretical writers
of classic economy and of critical socialism have analys-
ed, into a particular case of universal algebra. Work,
which is the very nerve of life from our point of view,
because it is man in the making, becomes from their
point of view a means of avoiding pain or selecting the
least pain. Amid this abstract atomistic of forces, esti-

84 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

mates, and degrees of pleasure, a man loses sight of
history, and progress resolves itself into a mere shadow.
If I had to give some sort of an outline, it wotdd not
be out of place to say that the philosophy, which histo-
rical materialism implies, is the tendency toward mon-
ism. And I lay a special stress upon the word tendency.
I say tendency, and let me add, a formal and critical
tendency. With us it is not a question of relying on an
intuitive theosophical or metaphysical knowledge of the
universe, on the assumption that we have arrived with-
out further ceremony at a comprehensive view of the
basic substance of all phenomena and processes by an
act of transcendental cognition. The word tendency ex-
presses precisely that our mind has adapted itself to the
conviction that everything can be conceived as in the
making, that even the conceivable is but in the making,
and that the process of growth is similar in character to
continuity. The thing which differentiates this concep-
tion of the genetic process from the vague transcenden-
tal imaginations of men like ScheUing is the critical
discernment. This implies a specialization of research
and an adherence to empirical methods in following the
internal movements of the process. It means giving up
the pretense of holding in one's hand a universal dia-
gram for all things. This is the way in which the vulgar
evolutionists proceed. Once that they have taken hold
of the abstract idea of growth (evolution), they catch
everything with it, from the concentration of a nebula to
their own fatuity. It was the same with the imitators of
Hegel, with their everlasting rhythm of a thesis, anti-
thesis, and synthesis. The main principle of critical cog-,
nition, by which historical materialism corrects monism,
is this: It takes its departure from the practice of

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 85

things, from the development of the labor-process, and
just as it is the theory of man at work, so does it consider
science itself as work. It impresses the empirical scien-
ces definitely with the implicit understanding that we
accomplish things by experiment, and brings us to a
realisation of the fact that things are themselves in the
making.

The passage from Engels, which I quoted a while ago,
might, perhaps, give rise to some curious results. Some
people take your whole hand, when you offer them a
little finger. If it is admitted that logic and dialectics
continue to exist as independent lines of thought, does
not that open a fine opportunity to rebuild the entire
encyclopedia of philosophy? By doing -over, piece by
piece, or in every individual science, the work of ab-
stracting the formal elements contained in them, vast
and comprehensive systems of logic may be written, such
as those of Sigwart and Wundt. These are, indeed,
veritable encyclopedias of the doctrine of the principles
of understanding. Well, if that is all the professors
want, they may rest assured that their chairs will not
be abolished. The division of labor on the intellectual
field permits of many practical combinations. If a man
wants to make a compilation and diagrammatic outline
of principles, by which we give ourselves account of a
definite group of facts, for instance of a certain course
of law, there is nothing to prevent him from calling
his work the general science of law, or, if he likes, the
philosophy of law, so long as he keeps in mind that he is
simply arranging in a tentative way a certain class of
historical facts, or that he is collecting a certain line of
historical facts which are products of historical develop-
ment.

86 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHT

A formal and critical tendency toward monism on one
side, an expert ability to keep a level head in special
research, on the other, that is the outcome. If a man
swerves but a little from this line, he either falls back
into simple empiricism (without philosophy) or he rises
to the transcendental field of hyper-philosophy with its
pretense that a man can grasp the whole world-process
by mere intellectual intuition.

If you have not read Hackel's lecture on Monism, do
me the favor of reading it. It has been introduced into
France by an enthusiastic Darwinian in sociology imder
the title Le Monisme lien entre la Religion et la Science
(traduction de G. Vacher de Lapouge, Paris, 1897.)
Hackel combines in his personality three different facul-
ties : A marvelous capacity for specialised research and
exposition, for profound systematization of special facts,
and for a poetical intuition of the universe, which, while
it is purely imagination, sometimes takes on the aspect
of philosophy. But, my illustrious Hackel, it surpasses
even the strength of your excellent mind to explain the
whole universe, from the vibrations of the ether to the
formation of your brain! But why do I stop at your
brain? Further on, from the origins of nations and
states and ethics to our times, including the protecting
principles of your university at Jena, to which you ren-
der homage on only 47 pages of octavo ! Don't you re-
member aU the riddles which the universe presents even
to our advanced science ? Or have you at your home a
large armory full of those nightcaps, which Heine said
the Hegelians used for covering up those riddles? Or
don't you remember that ease, which ought to appeal to
you more directly, the case of that Bathylius which

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 87

Huxley named after you, and which turned out later to
be a mistake ?

In short, this tendency towards monism must be
accompanied by a clear recognition of the specialization
of all research. It is a tendency to combine science and
philosophy, but at the same time also a continual scruti-
ny of the concrete thought used by us, and of its bear-
ing. This concrete thought can be very well detached
from its concrete object, as happens in logic, strictly so
called, and in the general theory of cognition, which you
call metaphysics. We can think concretely, and yet at
the same time ponder in abstract reflections over the ma-
terials and conditions of thinkable things. Philosophy
is and it not.* For any one who has not arrived at this
understanding, it is something beyond science. And for
any one who has arrived there, it is science brought to
perfection.

Nowadays, as of yore, we may write treatises on the
abstract aspects of some special experience, for instance
on ethics or politics, and we may impress our work with
all the perspicuity of a system. But we must also keep
in mind that the fundamental premises of our treatise
are products of genetic interrelation. We must not fall
into the metaphysical illusion that principles are eternal
diagrams, or supernatural things outside of human ex-
perience.

So far as this is concerned, there is no reason why we

*In saying this, I have In mind a queer book, of XXIII and
539 pages in large octavo, written by Professor R. Whale, of
the university of Czernowitz. I don't reproduce its title, which
is very diffuse and argumentative. The book is published by
BraumuUer, Vienna, 1896. Its object is to demonstrate that
philosophy has reached its end. The pity of it is that the book
is philosophical from cover to cover. This shows that philos-
ophy, in order to accomplish its own negation, must affirm
itself!

88 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

should not emmciate a formula like the following : All
the knowable may be known ; and all the knowahle will
be known in an infinite time ; and for the knowable re-
flecting about itself, for us, on the field of cognition,
there is nothing of any higher importance. , Such a gene-
ral statement reduces itself practically to saying : Know-
ledge is valuable to the extent that we can actually know
things. It is a mere play of fantasy to suppose that
our mind recognises as a fact an absolute difference be-
tween the limits of the knowable and the absolutely tin-
knowable. That is what you, von Hartmann, have been
doing these many years by haunting the regions of the
Unconscious, which you see so consciously in operation,
and you, Mr. Spencer, who operate continually with the
knowledge of fhe'IInknoivable, of which you at bottom
know something, while you define the limits of cognition.
Behind these phrases of Spencer hides the God of the
catechism. It is, after all, nothing but the relic of a
hyper-philosophy which devotes itself, like religion, to
the cult of an unknown, which is yet at the same time
declared to be known and transformed into an object of
worship. In this state of mind, philosophy is reduced to
a study of phenomena (the semblance of things), and
the concept of evolution does not imply at all that real
things are in process of growth.

In opposition to this mode of thought, historical mate-
rialism, the process of formation, or evolution, is real
and deals with reality itself. So is labor real, which is
the, self -development of man, who rises from mere life
(animaldom) to perfected liberty (in communism) . By
this practical inversion of the problem of cognition we
confide ourselves wholly to the hands of science, which is
our work. Another victory over fetishism ! Knowledge

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 89

is a necessity for us. It is produced naturally, refined,
perfected, strengthened by materials and technique, like
any other human need. We learn by slow degrees the
things that we must know. Experimental experience is
a process of growth. What we call progress of the mind
is an accumulation of energies of labor. It is this pro-
saic process, into which the alleged absoluteness of con-
sciousness resolves itself, this consciousness, which was
for the idealist a postulate of reason, or an ontological
entity.*

A queer thing (that socalled thing in itself), which
we do not know, neither today, nor tomorrow, which we
shall never know, and of which we nevertheless know
that we cannot know it. This thing cannot belong to the
field of knowledge, for it gives us no information of the
unknowable. That such ideas enter into the scope of
philosophy is due to the fact that the consciousness of
the philosopher is not quite scientific, but rather harbors

♦The postulate of absoluteness was Implied in the proofs of
God's existence, especially in the ontological argument. In
myself, a finite and imperfect being, with a limited knowledge,
there exists the capacity to think of the infinite and absolutely

perfect being, who knows everything. Therefore I am also

perfect! And so it happened that Cartesius committed the
following singular misstep in dialectics, which for him, how-
ever, remained simply a doubt (and which the critics have
evidently overlooked): "But perhaps I may be something more
than I imagine, and all the perfections, which I attribute to the
nature of a God, may in some manner be stored up in myself,
although they do not come forth as yet and do not show them-
selves by any actions. As a matter of fact, I experience already
that my knowledge grows and perfects itself by degrees, and I
see no reason why it should not continue to grow in this way
infinitely, nor why, having thus grown and become perfected, I
should not acquire by this means all the other perfections of
the divine nature, nor finally why the power which I have to
acquire these perfections, if it is true that such a power is now
in me, should not be sufficient to produce the corresponding
ideas." ("Oeuvres de Descartes," edition of V. Cousin, I, pages
282-83.)

90 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

still SO many other elements, such as feelings and emo-
tions, which generate psychic combinations under the
influence of fear, or through fantasy and myths. These
combinations hindered the development of rational un-
derstanding in the past, and still cast their shadows upon
the field of studied and prosaic thought. We think of
death. Theoretically it is immanent in life. Deaths
which appears so tragical in complex individuals, who
seem to be the true and rightful organisms to common
intuition, is immanent in the primitive elements of orga-
nic substance, owing to the instability and slight plast-
icity of protoplasm. But the fear of death is quite dif-
ferent. It is the egoism of life. And so it is with all
other feelings and emotions. Their mythical, poetical,
and religious antecedents have thrown, are throwing, and
will throw their shadows more or less upon the field of
consciousness. The philosophy of a purely theoretical
thinker, who contemplates all things from the point of
view of things in themselves, belongs in the same class as
the attempt to apply abstract thought to the entire field
of consciousness without meeting any byways or stops.
Look at Baruch Spinoza, that true hero of thought, who
studied in his own person the way in which the emotions
and passions, as expressions of his internal mechanism,
transform themselves for him into objects of geometrical
analysis !

In the meantime, until the heroism of Baruch Spinoza
shall become the matter-of-fact virtue of everyday life
in the higher developed humanity of the future, and un-
til myths, poetry, metaphysics and religion shall no
longer overshadow the field of consciousness, let us be
content that up to now, and for the present, philosophy
in its differentiated and its improved sense has served,

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 91

and serves, as a critical instrument and helps science to
keep its formal methods and logical processes clear ; that
it helps us in our lives to reduce the obstacles, which the
fantastic projections of the emotions, passions, fears and
hopes pile in the way of free thought ; that it helps and
serves, as Spinoza himself would say, to vanquish imagi-
naiionem et ignorantiam.

VII.

Rome, June 16, 1897.

1 have had a nice experience. Before I got to the end
of these letters, I had to discuss the very same subject,
which is the topic of my conversation with you, in an-
other place, in a different form, and not quite so plea-
santly.

In one of the recent issues of the Critica Sociale, there
appeared a sort of a message, sent forth by Mr. Antonino
De Bella, a sociologist of Calabria, against those exclu-
sive socialists, who, according to him, take the word of
Marx for everything in every question. De Bella forgot
to tell us, whether the Marx, to whom those whom he is
raking over the coals appeal, is the genuine specimen, or
another made to order, as it were, invented on purpose,
a blond Marx, or some other. He considered me worthy
of a place among those obstinate ones, to whom he
addresses his admonition and advice, in order that they
may perfect themselves by means of a wider culture in
sociology and natural history. But he mentions only my
name, without telling us to what particular book, saying,
or action of mine he is referring. Then he adds a little
of the usual rigmarole of sociology with a smattering of
Darwinism and the inevitable long list of names of
authors.

I thought it opportune to reply. In the first place, I
wanted to tell him curtly that scientific socialism was not
in such bad condition as to need his advice. Then I
wanted to show that his suggestions referred either to

92

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 93

things that were understood, or to things that were con-
trary to Marxism. And above all, since I was just en-
gaged in a conversation with you on the subject of social-
ism and philosophy, I thought it opportune to use a liv-
ing illustration in bringing home some of the critical
observations, which I am exchanging with you in this
somewhat bizarre manner.

I inclose my reply, just as it appeared in yesterday's
Critica Sociale. It is also a letter. And although it is
not addressed to you, still you may file it along with the
others, as though it were their continuation. It com-
pletes and sums up the others, with a few slight and ex-
cusable repetitions.

This special letter, which I sent to the editor of the
Critica Sociale, is not particularly sweet. I did not write
it exactly with the intention of doing Mr. De Bella a
favor. It is illhumored in some places. Perhaps this
bitterness in my critique is due to the fact that, being
deeply intent on the study of this grave problem of the
relations of historical materialism to the other scientific
thought of my time, I felt that the advice of Mr. De
Bella was rather inopportune, at least so far as I was
concerned, if for no other reason than that I had not
asked it. Of course, it was not my intention that he
should see what I was writing to you.

Rome, June 5, 1897.
Dear Turati !

I am not quite certain whether De Bella really means
me, when he mentions my name. I am rather inclined
to think that he is addressing his tirade to a strawman
of his own making, on whose back he has pasted my
name because it was handy. However that may be, as

94 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

soon as he mixes my name up in his meditations, I can-
not refrain from adding a postscript' to your reply.

It is well known that I explicitly and publicly allied
myself with socialist thought ten years ago.* Ten years
are not a very long time of my physical existence, since
I count four more than half a hundred. But they are
certainly a short span of my intellectual life. Before I
•became a socialist, I had had the inclination, leisure,
time, opportunity, and obligation to square my accounts
with Darwinism, Positivism, Neokantianism, and so
many other scientific questions that developed around
me and gave me occasion to develop among my contem-
poraries. For I hold the chair of philosophy at my uni-
versity since 1871, and before that I had studied the
things which are needed for a philosopher. When I
turned to Socialism, I did not look to Marx for an ABC
of knowledge. I did not look in Marxism for anything
but what it actually contains, namely its determined cri-
tique of political economy, its outlines of historical ma-
terialism, and its proletarian politics, which it proclaims
or implies. Neither did I look in Marxism for a know-
ledge of that philosophy, which is its premise and which
it, in a way, continues after having inverted the dialec-
tics of that philosophy. I mean Hegelianism, which
flourished in Italy in my youth and in which I had been
brought up, as it were. I don't say it with any intent to
be spiteful, but my first composition in philosophy,
dated May, 1862, is a Defense of Hegel's dialectics

*"Slnce 1873 I wrote against the fundamental principles of
the system of liberalism, and in 1879 I began to walk on the
road of my new intellectual faith, which I still hold and which
has been confirmed by further study and observation during
the last three years." Thus I wrote on page 23 of my lecture
"On Socialism," Rome, 1889. This lecture, which was in a way
a. confession of faith in a popular style, was supplemented by
me with the pamphlet "Proletarians and Radicals," Rome, 1890.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 95

against the return to Kant initiated hy Ed. Zeller!
Therefore I did not have to familiarise myself first with
the dialectic mode of thought, or the evolutionary or ge-
netic method, whatever you wish to call it, before I could
understand scientific socialism, for I had lived in this
circle of ideas ever since I had begun to think conscious-
ly. I add, however, that while Marxism did not offer
any difficulties to me so far as the intrinsic and formal
outlines of its conception and method were concerned,
I acquired its economic content only by dint of hard
work. And while I acquired this knowledge in the best
way that I could, I was neither compelled nor permitted
to confound the line of development germane to histori-
cal materialism, in other words, to confound ike meaning
of evolution in this concrete case with that almost diseas-
ed condition of some people's brains, especially in Italy,
which leads them to speak of a Madonna Evolution and
to worship her.

WTiat is it that De Bella wants of me ? That I should
go back to school like a plucked freshman and start my
course over again ? Or does he want me to be rebaptised
by Darwin, reconfirmed by Spencer, thereupon to recite
my general confession before my comrades, and prepare
to receive the extreme unction from him ? For the sake
of peace I should be willing to dismiss all the other
things. But I strongly protest against an appeal to the
consciences of my comrades. I admit that there is some
reason for strictness and often tyranny on the part of
iny comrades in matters of party politics, to a certain
extent and under certain conditions. But that my com-
rades should have authority to speak with arbitrary de-
cision in matters of science, simply because they are

96 - SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

comrades. ... Go away, science will never be put to a
test vote, even in the socalled society of the future !

Or does he want something less presumptuous than
that? Am I to affirm and swear that Marxism is not the
universal science, and that the things which it studies are
not the universe? All right, I grant that at once. And I
defy the idea that I cannot grant that. I have but to
remember the plan of study at the university and the
numerous courses it includes. I grant even more than
that. Here it is: "This doctrine itself is only in its
beginning and still has need of many developments."
{Historical Materialism, I, page 97.)*

In fact, the thing that torments De Bella and others
like him is precisely the chase after that universal philo-
sophy, into which socialism might be fitted as the central
point of everything. Go ahead ! The paper is patient,
say the German editors to budding writers. But I can-
not refrain from making two remarks. The first is, that
no wise man will ever succeed in giving us an idea of
this universal philosophy in two columns of Critica 80-
ciale. The second is a personal one. For twenty years
I have detested systematic philosophy. This attitude of
my mind made me not only more apt to accept Marxism,
which is one of the ways in which the scientific mind has
freed itself from philosophy as such, but has also made
of me an inveterate opponent of the philosopher Spencer,
who gave us still another diagram of the universe in his
First Principles. And now I must quote from my own
writings :

♦"I make no vow to shut myself up in any system as though
in a prison." Thus I wrote twenty-four years ago in my worlc
ON MORAL LIBERTY, Naples, 1873, preface. And I can repeat
that now. That book contains a detailed exposition of
determinism, and was then supplemented by another work
of mine, entitled, "Morality and Religion," Naples, 1873.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 97

-^"I did not come to this university, twenty-three years
ago, as the representative of any orthodox philosophy,
nor for the purpose of hatching out any new system. By
a fortunate accident of my life I gained my education
under the direct and straight influence of two great
systems, which marked the close of that philosophy,
which we now may call classic. I mean the systems of
Herbart and Hegel, which brought to its extreme culmi-
nation the antithesis between realism and idealism, be-
tween pluralism and monism, between scientific psycholo-
gy and phrenology of the mind, between a specialisation
of methods and an anticipation of every method by om-
niscient dialectics. The philosophy of Hegel had already
blossomed out into the historical materialism of Karl
Marx, and that of Herbart into empirical psychology,
which, under certain conditions and within certain
limits, is also experimental, comparative, historical, and
social. Those were the years, in which the intensive and

-extensive application of the principle of energy, of the
atomic theory, of Darwinism, and the rediscovery of the
precise forms and conditions of general philosophy, revo-
tutionized before our eyes our entire conception of nat-
ure. '', And in those times, the comparative study of insti-
tutions, aided by the comparative study of languages
and mythology, then of prehistory, and finally of indust-
rial history, overthrew most of the actual positions and
hypotheses, upon which and by which people had hither-
to philosophized concerning law, morality, and society.
The ferments of thought, those ferments which are im-
plied by new or renewed sciences, did not approach as yet,
nor do they approach now, a new development of system-
atic philosophy, which should contain and dominate the
entire field of experience. I pass by such philosophies

98 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

for private use, and of private invention, as those of
Nietzsche and von Hartmann, and save myself all cri-
ticism of those pretended returns to the philosophers of
other times,* which produce a philology instead of a
philosophy, as happened to the Neokantians. "

"I pause here in order to call attention to the almost
incredible mistake, by means of which many, especially
in Italy, confound without further ceremony Positivism,
as a certain philosophy, with the positive acquisitions
made by incessant experience in nature and society. To
such people it happens, for instance, that they cannot
distinguish the indisputable merit of Spencer, namely
that of having contributed to the formulation of a gene-
ral philosophy, from his incapacity to explain a single

•A return to other philosophies is nowadays also suggested
by some socialists. The one wants to return to Spinoza, that
is, to a philosophy, in which the historical development cuts
no figure. Another would he content with the mechanical
materialism of the 18th century, that is, with a repudiation of
any and all history. Still others think of reviving Kant. Does
that imply also the revival of his insoluble antinomy between
practical reason and theoretical reason? Does it mean a return
to his fixed categories and fixed faculties of the soul, of which
Herbart seemed to have made short work? Does it include his
categorical imperative, in which Schopenhauer had discovered
the Christian commandments in the disguise of a metaphysical
principle? Does it mean the theory of natural rights, which
even the Pope does not care to uphold any more? Why don't
they let the dead bury the dead?

You have only the choice of two logical alternatives. Either
you accept those other philosophies in their entirety, just as
they were in their own time, and in that case you must say
goodbye to historical materialism. 1 Or you pick out from them
what suits you, and cut your arguments to fit your choice, and
in that case you burden yourselves with useless labor, because
the history of thought is so constituted that nothing is lost of
the things which were in the pasj the conditions and prepara-
tions for our present conceptiohs.\

There is, eventually a third possibility, namely that of falling
into syncretism and confusion. A good illustration of this type
is L. Woltmann ("System des moralischen Bewusstseins," Dus-
seldorf, 1898), who reconciles the eternal laws of morality with
Darv/inism, and Marx with Christianity.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 99

historical fact by means of his wholly diagrammatic so-
ciology. They are unable to separate that which belongs
to the scientist Spencer from that which belongs to the
philosopher Spencer. The latter is also a back number,
for he is sparring with such categories as the Homoge-
neous, the Heterogenous, the Indistinct, the Differentiat-
ed, the Kiiown, and the Unknown. In other words, he is
alternately a Kantian without knowing it and a cari-
cature of Hegel."

"The lecture plan of the university should distinctly
reflect the actual state of philosophy, which demands at
present the insistence of thought on really known things.
In other words, it demands just the reverse of any pre-
conceived theories cencerning cognition by means of
theological or metaphysical cogitation." (L'Universita
e la Liberia della scienza, Rome 1897, pages 15, 16,
and 17.)*.

Ultimately, then, this socalled philosophy championed
by De Bella is at bottom nothing but another edition of
that trinity Darwin-Spencer-Marx, which Enrico Ferri
set in circulation about three years ago with such sug-
gestive eloquence, but with so little good luck.*) Well

■»I would recommend to the reader my lecture on "La Laurea
in Pilosofla" (The Doctorate in Philosophy), which is appended
to the above work. My friend Lombroso called it jokingly "the
beheading of metaphysics."

•The lack of good luck was demonstrated by many articles
which were written against this conception, beginning with
Kautsky's strongly peppered and salted one in "Die Neue Zeit,"
XIII, Vol. I, pages 709-716, to that of David in "Le Devenir
Social," December, 1896, pages 1059-65, not to mention the
others. Incidentally, Ferri says in a footnote of his appendix to
the French edition of his work "Darwin, Spencer, Marx," Paris,
1897: "Professor Labriola quite recently repeated, without proof,
the assertion that socialism is not reconcilable with Darwinism
(in his article on "Le Manifeste de Marx et Engels," in "Le
Devenir Social,' June 1895)." — Now it is true, that I take
issue, in my essay "In Memory of the Communist Manifesto,"
with those who "seek In this doctrine a derivative of Darwin-
ism, which is an analogous theory only in a certain point of
view and in <i very broad sense." (Page 19) — But it seems to

100 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

now, dear Turati, I honestly wish to assume the role of
devil's advocate and admit that there is a germ of truth,
a demand for the satisfaction of a real need, in these
vague aspirations to a. philosophy of socialism, and in
the many silly things said in this respect (and some have
almost gotten to the point of believing that it should be
a sort of philosophy for the private use of the socialists
alone). Many of these who embrace socialism, and not
merely as simple agitators, lecturers, and candidates,
feel that it is impossible to accept it as a scientific con-
viction, unless it can be combined in some way with the
rest of that genetic conception of things, which lies more
or less at the bottom of all other sciences. This accounts
for the mania of many to bring within the scope of
socialism all the rest of science, which is at their disposal.
This leads to many mistakes and ingenuities, all of which
are explicable. But it also carries with it a danger. For
many of these intellectuals may forget that socialism has
its real basis in the present conditions of capitalist
society and in the possible aims and actions of the prole-
tariat and other poor people. Marx may become a myth-
ical personage through the work of the intellectuals.
And while they discuss the whole scale of evolution up
and down, and down and up, the comrades may put the
following philosophical thesis to a vote in one of their
next conventions: The first fundament of socialism is
found in the vibrations of the ether.*

me that to deny its derivation and to admit its analogy does
not mean to deny tliat it can be reconciled with Darwinism.
Kindly see my essay on "Historical Materialism," chapter iv.

*This philosophical thesis is, in a. way, foreshadowed in the
following words of Ferri, which conclude the aforementioned
note: "Biological transformism is evidently founded on uni-
versal transformism, and at the same time it Is the basis of
economic and social transformism." Under these circumstances,
Spencer is simultaneously a genius and an idiot, for he is the
prince of evolution and yet he never could understand socialism!

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 101

In this way I explain to myself the ingenuity of De
Bella. If Marx were still alive! Don't you see? He
was born on May 5, 1818, and died on March 14, 1883,
and therefore he might still be alive, as human life is
measured. And if alive, I should continue, he could
have completed volume III of Capital, which is so dis-
connected and so obscure. No sirree ! says De Bella, he
would have become a materialist! But gracious me!
That is what he was since 1845, and he fell out with the
radical ideologists of his acquaintance on account of it.
And he would not only have become a materialist, ac-
cording to De Bella, but also a positivist! Positivism!
In vulgar chronology, this term signifies the philosophy
of Comte and his followers. Now, it had given up its
ghost ideally even before Marx died physically. What a
fine sight! Materi'alism— Positivism— Dialectics, a holy
trinity! And still another fine sight! The scientific
papacy of Comte reconciled with the infinite process of
historical materialism, which solves the problem of
cognition differently from all other philosophies and
declares: There are no fixed limits, whether a priori or
a posteriori, to cognition, because human beings learn
all that they must know by an infinite process of labor,
which is experience, and of experience, which is labor.*

Comte, on the contrary, proclaimed that the cycle of
physics and astronomy was for ever closed, just at the
moment when the mechanical equivalent of heat was
found, and a few years before the brilliant discovery of
spectral analysis. And in 1845 he declared the research
after the origin of species to be absurd !

•Next I expect a twin-star Socrates-Marx. For Socrates was
the first to discover that understanding is a process of labor,
and that man knows only those things well which he can do.
A book of mine on "La Dottrina di Socrate" bears the date of
1871, Naples.

102 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

\\

But, continues De Bella, historical materialism must
study prehistoric society. And this is precisely where
the devil plays his joke. Ancient Society, by Lewis H.
Morgan, which was published in America and reached
Europe in a few copies through the firm of Macmillan,
London, (1877), was almost killed by the pitiless silence
.4— of the English ethnographers, who were either envious
' or afraid. But the results of Morgan's investigations

went around the world precisely because Engels rescued
them by his book. The Origin of the Family, Private
Property, and the State, (first edition 1884, fourth edi-
tion 1891). This book is at the same time a review,
an exposition, and a supplement of Morgan's work. It
is a cpmbination of Morgan and Marx. And what does
Engels say of Morgan? That he had, "in a manner,
discovered anew the materialistic conception of history,
originated by Marx. . . " and, "in comparing barbarism
and civilisation, he had arrived, in the main, at the same
results as Marx. ' ' And why did Engels write his book ?
Because he desired to utilize the notes and comments
left by Marx.

There! Ordinary chronology is of great importance,
even for socialists. .-^-

And now let us furn to the inevitable Spencer. Is
there any one outside of Italy who ever considered him
a socialist? Is Spencer, perhaps, a philosopher of the
other world? You can read him, and about him, in
every language, not excluding that of modernized Japan.
He does not sin through lack of clearness. From my
point of view, who love succinct brevity, he rather suffers
from prolixity and overdone popularization. The first
of his known writings bears the date of 1843. That was
the time when Chartism was at its height. This work

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 103

is entitled, The Proper Sphere of Government. Spencer
was in the eyes of the whole world as an admired con-
tributor to the Westminster Review, the Economist, and
the Edinburgh Review. And take note once more of the
dates of his contributions, especially from 1848 to 1859.
Has any one ever deceived himself in England as to the
meaning and value of his social and political work 1 His
Social Statics appeared in 1851, his Psychology (first
edition ) in 1855, his Education in 1861, the first edition
of First Principles in 1862, his Classification of Sciences
in 1864, his Biology from 1864 to 1867, not to mention
his smaller essays, among the most notable of them his
Hypothesis of Development (1852), his Genesis of
Science (1854), and his Progress and Its Law (1857).
Here I will close this enumeration, stopping at the works
which appeared before the first volume of Capital was
out (July 25, 1867). Surely it did not require the
genius of a Marx in order to discover what I realized as
a simple student of philosophy, namely, that those writ-
ings of Spencer, and the doctrine of evolution enunciated
in them, are diagrammatical, not empirical, that Spen-
cer's evolution is one of phenomena, not one of real
things, that behind it stands the spectre of Kant's thing
in itself, which he worshipped from the beginning in all
his essays as God or Divinity (Statics, edition of 1851) ,
and which he later circumscribed with the revered name
of the Unknowable.

If Marx had ever reviewed the works of Spencer be-
tween 1860 and 1870, I will bet that he would have
done it in the following style: "Here we have the last
advance of the shadow cast by the English Deism of the
17th century ; here we have the latest attempt of English
hypocrisy to combat the philosophy of Hobbes and

104 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Spinoza ; here we have the last projection of Transcen-
dentalism into the field of positive science ; here we have
the latest mixture of the egoistic cretinism of Bentham
with the altruistic cretinism of the Rabbi of Nazareth;
here we have the last attempt of the bourgeois intellect
to save, by means of free research and free competition
in this world, an enigmatical shred -of faith in the next
world. Only the triumph of the proletariat can secure
for the scientific mind the full and perfect conditions of
its existence, because the intellect cannot be clear until
the conditions in which it works are made transparent. ' '
Thus Marx would have written, or could have written.
But he was busy attending to the International, and
Spencer had no time to take notice of this association.
^ ' On March 17, 1883, Engels spoke in Highgate Ceme-
tery in memory of his friend Marx, who had died three
days before, and he began his address with these words :
"Just as Darwin discovered the laws of development in
organic nature, so Marx discovered the laws of develop-
ment of human history. "*/' Should not De Bella feel
mortified on reading this?

Nor is this all. In his Anti-Buhring (first edition
1878, third edition 1894), the same Engels had already
acquired all the fundamental ideas of Darwinism, which
are required for the general orientation of a scientific
socialist. It had taken him about ten years to acquire
this new education in natural science, and he declared
frankly that he was more at home in it than Marx, while
Marx was better versed in mathematics. Nor is even

*See "Zuricher Socialdeniokrat," March 22, 1883, page 1.
I remark by the way that Darwin, who had died the year be-
fore, was born in 1809. Engels was born in 1820, like Spencer.
They were all real contemporaries, of about the same age, and
living In the same environment.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 105

this all. The first edition of Capital contains a charac-
teristic and very original note concerning the new world
discovered by Darwin. Understand well that these two
modest raortals, who never made any supernatural por-
tions of the universe, were always referring to no other
Darwinism but that prosaic one of the Origin of Species
(1859), which consists of a series of observations and
experiences on the limited field of reality, a reality
which extends beyond the origins of life and precedes
human- history by a considerable length. They could
not help perceiving that the Darwinian theories pre-
sented an analogous case to their epigenetic conception
of history, which they had partly defined, partly just
begun studying.* They never heard anything of that
Darwinism, which De Bella calls the discoverer of the
laws of entire humanity, of that Darwinism, which is
supposed to be good for everything, which is a gratuitous
invention of scientific publicists and philosophical
decadents. Did not their friend Heine tell them that
the universe is full of holes, and that the German pro-
fessor of Hegel's school covers these holes with his
nightcap ?

But let us leave aside the universe and its holes, dear
Turati, and let us all do our duty. I always remember
that strong invective, which the Hegelian B, Spavanta
hurled about 30 years ago : " In our country they study
the history of philosophy in the geography of Ariosto,
and they quote as equals Plato and the abbe Fornari,
Torquato Tasso and Totonno Tasso."**

*I have explained what I mean by "epigenetic conception" In
a work entitled "The Problems of the Philosophy of History,"
Rome, 1887. This work is partly based on an older work of
mine entitled "The Teaching of History," Rome, 1876.

•*The last named was a music hall ginger, and was, in his
own cracked estimation, a precursor of Oscar Wilde.

VIII.

Rome, June 20, 1897.

I miist write a sort of postscript, which shall supple-
ment my letter preceding the last one, so full of difficult
questions.

Very naturally, I class among the products of our
emotions, by which the scientific mind is obscured, also
those complex sensations, which we ordinarily call optim-'
ism and pessimism respectively, and which represent
certain inclinations, tendencies, evaluations and pre-'
judices.

No one can find in those modes of expression, which
oscillate between poetry and passion and always strike
that uncertain note which cannot be reduced to precise
terms, either a tendency to, or a promise of, a rational
interpretation of things. Taken in their entirety, these
emotions are combinations and expressions of infinite
individual feelings, which may have their seat, as is
plainly the case with pessimism, either in the specific
temperament of some individual personality (such as
Leopardi), or in the common conditions of large multi-
tudes (for instance, the origin of Buddhism). In short,
optimism and pessimism are essentially generalisations
of emotions resulting from some particular experience or
social condition, which are projected so far outside of
our immediate environment as to make of them, as it
were, the axis, the fulcrum, or the finality of the uni-
verse. By this means the categories of good and bad,
which have really but a modest relation to our practical

106

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 107

needs, finally become standards by which the whole world
is judged, reducing it to such small dimensions as to
make of it a simple basis and condition of our happiness
or unhappiness. From either point of view, the world
seems to have no other meaning than that of good or
bad, and the final outcome seems to depend on the pre-
valence or triumph of one over the other.

At the bottom if this mode of looking at things is
always the primitive poetry which is never separated
from myth. And such modes of conception form always
the practical pith and suggestive power of religious
systems, from the crude optimism of Mohammedanism to
the refined pessimism of Buddhism. And that is very
natural. Religion is a need precisely for the reason, and
only for the reason, that it represents the transfigura-
tion of so many fears, hopes, pains, bitter experiences of
daily life into pre-ordained faiths and judgments. In
this way the struggles of this world, so-called, are trans-
formed into transcendental antagonisms of the universe,
such as God and Devil, sin and redemption, creation and
re-birth, the scale of atonements and Nirvana. This
optimism, and this pessimism, which assume the shape of
thought and surround themselves with a certain philo-
sophy, are nothing but more or less conscious survivals
of religion in another form, or of that anti-religion,
which in a transport of passionate unbelief resembles
faith. The optimism of Leibniz, for instance, is cer-
tainly not a philosophical function of his study of the
differential calculus, nor of his critique of action at a
distance, nor of his metaphysical theory of monads, nor
of his discovery of internal determinism. His optimism
is his religion. It is that religion which appears to him
as the perpetual and lasting one. It is for him that

108 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Christianity which reconciles all Christian creeds, a pro-
vidence justified by the view that this world is the best
which can ever be and continue. This theological ppetry
has its humoristic, and therefore dialectic, counterpart
in Voltaire's Candide. Similarly the pessimism of Scho-
penhauer is not a necessary result of his critique of the
'Kantian critique, nor a direct function of his exquisite
researches in logic. It is rather the expression of his
petty bourgeois soul, unhappy, disgruntled, peevish, seek-
ing satisfaction in the metaphysical contemplation of
the blind forces of the unknowable (or the blind effort
to exist) . In other words, he seeks satisfaction in a form
of religion to which little attention is paid, the religion
of atheism*

If we rise from the secondary and derived configura-
tions and complications of religion or theological philo-
sophy, to which optimism and pessimism belong, to the
origin of these mental creations themselves, we find our-
selves in the presence of a fact which is as obvious as it
is simple. It is* that every human being, on account of
his or her physical condition and social environment, is
led to make a sort of hedonistic calculation, in other
words, to measure his or her needs and the means of
satisfying them. The result is a more or less colored
appreciation of the conditions of existence, and of life
itself in its interrelations. Now, when intelligence has
progressed so far as to overcome the incantations of

*I except the philosopher Teichmiiller, who studied and
described only that form of active atheism, which Is a religion
and faith. On the other hand, the absence of all religion, which
is characteristic of purely experimental sciences, corresponds to
the indifference of the mind to all faiths or creeds. Atheism as
an active creed was the source of that Parisian circle of writers,
whose principal founders were the ingenuous Chaumette and
the ambiguous Hebert.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 109

imagination and ignorance, wkich link the prosaic pover-
ty of ordinary life with fantastic transcendental forces,
then the creative suggestions of optimism and pessimism
can no longer exert themselves. The mind turns to the
prosaic study of the means by which to attain, not to
that fabulous entity called happiness, but to the normal
development of human faculties. Under favorable,
natural and social conditions, these faculties find in life
itself the reasons for its existence and an explanation-
tion for its causes. This is the beginning of that wisdom,
which alone entitles man to the name of homo sapiens.

Historical materialism, being a philosophy of life, in-
stead of its mere intellectual phenomena, overcomes the
antithesis between optimism and pessimism, because
it passes beyond their limits and understands them.

History is indeed an interminable succession of pain-
ful struggles. Labor, which is the distinguishing mark
of human life, has been the means of oppressing the vast
majority. Labor, which is the prerequisite of aU pro-
gress, has pressed the sufferings, the privations, the tra-
vail, and the ills of the multitude into the service of the
comfort of the few. History is like an inferno. It might
be presented as a somber drama, entitled The Tragedy of
Labor.

But this same sombre history has produced out of
this very condition of things, almost without the con-
scious knowledge of men, and certainly not through the
providence of any one, the means required for the rela-
tive perfection, first of very few, then of a few, and
then of more than a few. And now it seems to be at
work for all. The great tragedy was unavoidable. It
was not due to any one's fault or sin, not to any one's
abBrration or degeneration, not to any one's capricious

110 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and sinful straying from the straight path. It was due
to an immanent necessity of the mechanism of social life,
and to its rhythmic process. This mechanism operates
on the means of subsistence, which are the product of
human labor and co-operation under more or less favor-
able natural conditions./;Nowadays, when the prospect
opens up before our eyes of organizing society in such a
way as to give to every one the means of self perfection,
we see clearly the reasonableness of this view, because
the growing productivity of labor supplies all the re-
quirements for a higher culture of all. It is this fact
on which scientific socialism bases its right to existence,
instead of trusting in the triumph of a universal good-
ness, which the Utopian and sentimental socialists have
discovered in the hearts of all and proclaimed as eternal
justice. Scientific socialism trusts in the development
of the material means which shall promote conditions,
under which all human beings shall have leisure to
develop in freedom. In other words, the causes of
injustice (to use this term of ideologists) will be re-
moved, such as class rule, bossism, the oppression of man
by man. The injustices resulting from these causes are
precisely the indispensable conditions for that miserable
material fact, the economic exploitation of the working
class.

Only in a communistic society will labor be no longer
exploited, but rather rationally measured. Only in a
communistic society will a hedonistic calculation become
practicable, unimpaired by the private exploitation of
social forces. Once that the obstacles to the free devel-
opment of all are removed, those obstacles which now
divide classes and individuals until they are separated
past all recognition, every one will find at hand the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 111

means by which the faculties and needs of each can be
measured by the requirements of society. To adapt our-
selves to the practicable, and do it without any external
compulsion, this is the standard of liberty, which is the
same as wisdom. For there can be no true morality, un-
less there is a consciousness of determinism. In a com-
munistic society the apparent antagonism between optim-
ism and pessimism falls to the ground. For in that
society there is no longer any contradiction between the
necessity to work in the service of the collectivity and
the selfdevelopment of the personality. That necessity
and this personal freedom will be understood as one.
The ethics of that society will abolish the contradiction
between rights and duties, for this contradiction is essen-
tially the theoretical elaboration of the present anta-
gonistic social conditions, in which some have the right
to command and others have the duty to obey. In a
society, in which goodness does not mean charity, it will
not seem Utopian to demand that each give according to
his faculties and each take according to his needs. In
such a society, preventive education will largely elimin-
ate the sources of crime, and the practical education of
co-operative life and labor will reduce the necessity of
repression to a minimum. In short, punishment will
appear as a simple safeguard of a certain order and will
lose all character of a supernatural justice, which must
be vindicated or established. In such a society, there
will no longer be any need to look for any transcendental
explanation of the practical fate of man. //

This critique of the motive causes of history, of the
reasons for the existence of present society, and of a
rationally measurable and measured outlook upon the
society of the future, shows why optimism, pessimism,

112 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and so many other fabrics of imagination had to serve,
and must continue to serve, as expressions of emotions
that stir minds under the influence of the struggles of
social life. If this is what the transcendental thinkers,
to whom you allude, mean, and if they intend to be the
posthumous collectors of the sighs and tears of humanity
in the course of the centuries, so be it. Poetical license
is not forbidden, even to socialists. However, they will
not succeed in putting the myth of eternal justice on its
legs and sending it to fight against the reign of darkness.
That grand and beneficent lady will never move a single
stone of the capitalist structure. That which the meta-
physical thinkers among the ' socialists call the evil,
against which the good is struggling, is not an abstract
negation, but a hard and strong system of practical facts.
It is poverty organized to produce wealth. Now, the
historical materialists have so little tenderness of heart
as to claim that this evil is actually the cradle of the
future good. Freedom will come through the revolution
of the oppressed, not through the goodness of the
oppressors.

An easy relapse into metaphysics of the offensive kind
is often the fate of even those studies which, according
to their writers, represent the quintessence of positive
and scientific procedure. This is the case, for instance,
with many of the expounders of the much discussed and
disputable criminal anthropology.

In its aims and tendencies, this science represents a
notable factor in that salutary critique of criminal law,
which gradually succeeded in overturning the founda-
tions of the philosophical, and especially ethical, ideas
concerning so simple a fact as the experience that there
must be punishment so long as there is a society. In its

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 113

method, however, it passes rarely beyond the field qf
statistical compilation, or beyond that mass of proba-
bilities which constitute the various shades of study em-
braced by the general term anthropology. Hardly ever
does it reach the degree of precision, which has enabled
such analogous studies as psychic research, thanks to the
marvelous progress in the anatomy of the central nerve
system and in all departments of medicine, to contribute
in a few years more to the development of psychology
than was contributed by twenty centuries of controversy
over the text of Aristotle, or the hypothesis of spiritual-
ism, or that of purely rational materialism.

But this is not what I want to emphasize.

This doctrine carries with it a tendency to consider
the recurrence of crime as a result of an innate predispo-
sition of individuals who show certain characteristic
marks. However, these marks are not in all cases object-
ively studied or well fixed. StiU, there is nothing wrong
about this.

The theory which lies at the bottom of the criminal
law of those countries to which the effects of the bour-
geois revolution have extended shares the merits and
defects of that equalitarian principle of all so-called
liberalism which can be only formal and abstract, con-
sidering the natural and social inequalities of men. Of
course, this theory was an advance over the corporeal
justice, and over the privileges of the clergy and arist-
ocracy. And for this reason, a historical victory is pro-
claimed in the words : The law is equal for all. How-
ever, this theory reduces the function of punishment to
a mere defense of the present system by means of estab-
lished laws. It is content to punish only violations of
this order, without penetrating to the problem of con-

114 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

sciousness. It has been shorn of all religious character
and no longer deals with the mind or soul. It is no
longer the instrument of a church, of a creed, of a super-
stition. This criminal law is prosaic, just as prosaic as
all of capitalist society. And this is another triumph of
free thought, leaving out of consideration a few slight
inconsistencies. In short, it is the act which is punish-
ed, not the man. It is the disturber of this order who is
punished by the law that defends it. The punishment is
not aimed at a man's conscience, be it irreligious, here^
tical, atheistic, or what not. In order 'to accomplish this
result, this theory had to construct a typical equality of
responsibility for all human beings, on the basis of a
free will, excluding only extreme eases of lack of mental
control and liberty of action.* It is by this very means
that vaunted and celebrated justice, through the irony of
fate, transforms the principle of equality befor the law
into the grossest injustice. For human beings are in
reality socially and naturally unequal before the law.

This dialectic has of late been discussed by sociologists,
socialists, and critics of all sorts. They have built up a
long line of argument against the existing law, ranging
from the mystically colored paradox that society pun-

•"...The jurists generally do not pay any attention to this.
Responsibility in the psychological meaning of the term signi-
fies that an action is attributed to some person (to a person's
will), to the extent that that person is conscious of his or her
action and wills it. But since a responsibility in a psycho-
logical sense implies a responsibility in a moral sense, we must
compare the will, which is the principle of action, with that
sum of ideas which form the moral conscience of the person
who acts. And such a comparison must clearly reveal the fact
that the moral responsiblity of each is reduced to an infinites-
imal differentiation from individual to individual." See page
124 of my work on "Moral Liberty," Naples, 1873. This may be
verified as we go along.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 115

ishes the crimes which it breeds to the humanitarian
demand that equal education should vindicate the prin-
ciple of equality before the law by creating the actual
conditions for its practicability. The salient point of
all this criticism is brought out by the consistent social-
ists, who realize that class-struggles are an essential part
of present society, and who do not expect to get equal
justice for all either by the right to punish or by any
other existing law. For to act otherwise would be like
looking for an improbable society, in which divisions
would be the causes of concord and union. This law of
a mediocre justice, which is in constant conflict with it-
self, is the product of a society, in which the demand for
equality is ever at war with itself. The lie becomes very
plain in that fine discovery of the apologists of capita-
lism that after all the wage workers are free citizens,
who accept servitude voluntarily by making contracts on
equal terms with their equals, the capitalists. Still, we
socialists don't wish to abandon this self -contradictory
principle merely to throw ourselves into the arms of
reactionaries, who are combatting it for other reasons
and would abolish it in some other way. We rather look
upon it as one of the negative factors inherent in bour-
geois society, as one of the historical means by which it
is undermining itself.

Criminal anthropology came in good time to support
with its special studies the critical claim that the law is
not equal for all. To this extent it is a progressive
science. To the social differences, which render the de-
mand for an equal responsibility of all absurd, in pro-
portion as the typical form of free will in sane minds
varies, thi^ science has added the study of presocial dif-
ferences, which are the limits drawn around our will by

116 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHT

our animal nature and which oppose an invincible re-
sistance to all attempts to adapt ourselves to the de-
mands of education. This is not the place to investigate,
whether this science has exaggerated the extent of this
animal nature, whether it has imperfectly interpreted
the cases it wanted to study, and whether it has fan-
tastically generalized the results of partial and not very
accurate observations. The main point is that some of
its methods throw it unconsciously back into the meta-
physics it detests. In its legitimate efforts to combat
the conception of justice and responsibility as entities,
it makes the mistake of attributing too much to such
natural facts as the disposition to commit crime, and
denotes and defiaes them in such a way as to detract
from those categories of social protection, which arise
out of conditions of existence to which men have become
accustomed after their birth. To be more explicit, ex-
cessive and unbridled license should be attributed to
animal nature, but certainly not adultery, which is very
clearly a social product. Rapacity should be classed as
animal nature, but not theft in its economic aspects, in-
cluding the forging of checks. A bloodthirsty tempera-
ment belongs in the animal category, but not the murder
of kings, etc. It must not be said that these are merely
verbal distinctions. They touch the bottom of things.
They concern the clear grasps of methodical limits. They
show how important it is to remember that metaphysics
is an atavistic evil, from which even those do not escape
who are continually shouting: Down with metaphysics!
The same has for a long time taken place in other scien-
ces, for instance in general psychology, or in the special
study of diseased minds. .Many have attempted to local-
ize psychic phenomena in the brain, instead of adhering

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 117

to the most elementary facts, which, it is true, were but
recently ascertained. They tried to locate the faculty of
the soul, for instance the renowned physiologist Ludwig.
In other words, they tried to determine the local seat of
rationalist concepts, of things which did not exist in
reality. Criminal anthropology still has to separate its
categories and determine them critically. It must over-
come the mistake of regarding as innate and natural
fa;cts the simple categories, which criminal law fixed and
defined for practical reasons in order to apply them to
the experience of mere social conditions.

IX.

Eome, July 2., 1897.

You refer to those critics of different character and
nature, who maintain, for many different reasons, that
Christianity recoils from a materialistic interpretation of
history, and who think that they have thereby raised an
insurmountable objection.

Must I enter into these woods, which, though perhaps
not impenetrable and wild, are certainly very dark for
me? You know how repugnant all hard and fast sys-
tems are to me. I am not of the opinion — and it would
be fatuous to think otherwise — that any theory of his-
tory will ever be so good and excellent in itself that it
will be akey to the understanding of every particular
phase of history, without first devoting ourselves to
special research in such cases. Now, I have not made a
special study of the history of the Christian church so
far, and therefore I am not able to handle the subject
with ease. The ordinary sort of objectors mouth about
this subject on the strength of general impressions. In
my young days, I read Strauss and the principal writ-
ings of the Tiibingen school, just as all those did who
studied German classic philosophy. And I might ex-
claim with many others, by slightly varying Faust's cry:
"I, too, have unfortunately studied theology."

But later on I did not occupy myself any more with
these matters. Still, I have adhered to the conviction
that the Tubingen school was the first to begin definitely
and earnestly that study of Christianity which alone has

118

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 119

a claim to the term historical, and that latter-day prog-
ress ia this line, so far as any has been accomplished or
is in. process of accomplishment, consists mainly in cor-
rections and supplements of the results of that school.
The principal correction should be in my opinion the
following: The scientists of Tiibingen devoted them-
selves primarily, although not exclusively, to a study of
the origin and development of creeds and dogmas, while
later it became necessary, and is still necessary, to study
the formation and development of Christian associations.
To the extent that we approach this method of consider-
ing the question, which I shall call the sociological meth-
od for brevity's sake, we shall get nearer to an objective
research. For an understanding of the how and why of
the origin and development of the associations wiU give
us the means to understand, for what reasons, and in
what way, the souls, the imaginations, the intellects, the
desires, the fears, the hopes, the aspirations of the mem-
bers of these associations had to seek expression through
certain creeds, adopt certain symbols, and arrive at the
formulation of certain dogmas; in other words, how it
happened that these associates had to piece together a
whole world of doctrines and imaginary concepts. Once
that this step has been made, we are on the road which
leads directly to historical materialism. For we have then
arrived at the general statement that ideas should be re-
garded as products, not as the causes, of certain social
structures.

If I am mistaken— for, as I said, I understand compar-
atively little of these arguments— the recent studies of
ancient Christianity have followed mainly this realistic
line. And it seems to me that writers like Harnack are
in the front ranks of this study. Incidentally I refer to

120 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the very remarkable work of the Englishman Hatch,
which I have read. He demonstrates with the greatest
lucidity and by means of documentary evidence that the
Christian association, beginning at a certain point after
its first origins, developed and consolidated by means of
adaptation to the various forms of corporative law which
flourished in the different regions of the Eoman empire.
In other words, the movement adapted itself to the con-
ditions peculiar to Roman law, or to local and national
customs, especially to Grecian and Hellenist institutions.
I hope our bishops may not take it amiss. The Holy
Ghost will have come in by elevating the bishops above
the remaining mass of the faithful, to the extent that the
origuial democratic organization was transformed into a
hierarchy by the differentiation into clergy and lay-
members (or common people). The name certainly in-
dicates that the Christian organization was modeled after
those bodies of boatmen, fish dealers, bakers, and others,
who had their episcopi et reliqua (overseers and other
folk).

At this point we must make another step forward. We
must abandon the abstract concept of a uniform history
of all Christianity and take up the particular history, in
time and place, of Christian associations. These asso-
ciations were first a part of that greater civilized, semi-
civilized, or directly barbarian society, in which they
developed during the first three centuries. Then it seems
that they absorbed and molded all the complex relations
of that semi-civilized or semi-barbarian society, as was
the case, for instance, in the Latin "West during the so-
called Middle Ages. And finally, when the unity of
Catholicism was broken by Protestantism, the liberty of
conscience was recognized, especially after the Great

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 121

Revolution^ The Christian associations then became a
settled part of the political and social life, playing a pre-
dominant role here, a minor role there, or remaining in-
significant in another place, as the case might be. It is
along this line that the problem of the relations between
state and church must be handled, for this is a question
of historical relations, not of theoretical formulae.

This method is being more and more applied to the
study and explanation of those material conditions, by
which the Christian associations were created, perpetu-
ated, and carried to partial or local dissolution, just as
other forms of common life were. All the causes and
reasons of these different changes become easily evident
by this means. And then it is understood that creeds,
dogmas, symbols, legends, lithurgies, and other things of
a similar nature, are matters of secondary consideration,
the same as every other superstructure of ideas.

To continue writing history on Christianity as an en-
tity means to multiply the errors of those men of letters
and sages who commit the methodical mistake of v?riting
histories of literature or philosophy as though these were
independent entities. In these handiworks of manu-
factured wisdom it seems as though the poets,' orators,
and philosophers of different epochs, isolated from the
other life of their respective times, were grasping hands
across the centuries to form a chain of celebrities ; or as
though they had not succeeded in getting the material
and opportunity for poems and philosophical essays out
of the conditions and the stage of evolution of their peri-
od and had therefore tried to go off to some corner by
themselves. This is the studied mark of learned com-
pilations. Of course," it is very convenient to have on
hand some manual containing all the information on that

122 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

which we call French literature, say from La Chanson
de Roland to the novels of Zola. But the chronology of
thousands of years does not run simply from one thing
to another, nor does the gift of poetry vary simply from
case to case. It is rather a question of transformations
in the entire relations of life in all its great outlines. But
literary expressions are but relative indices, specific sedi-
ments, particular cases, among this mass of social trans-
mutations. It is very convenient, especially for the arti-
ficial cramming common in our universities, to reduce all
that we mean historically by the term philosophy to a
compendium. But who is there that is able to tell, after
such instruction, how it happens that the individual
philosophers came to hold so many different, and often
contradictory, opinions ? How is it possible to make one
single line of independent progress out of the antique
philosophy, which up to Plato constituted about all the
science there was, then out of scholasticism made over by
theology with an almost complete absence of science, then
out of that philosophy of the 17th century which was a
sort of mental exploration running parallel with the new
contemporaneous science based on experiment and obser-
vation, and finally out of that new criticism which tends
to make of philosophy a mere summary of the special
knowledge of the individual sciences, which have become
so widely differentiated ?

In short, it is absurd to continue writing universal
histories of Christianity, except it be done for academic
convenience. I am not referring to those who think with
the minds of believers. These think that the leading
thread of such universal histories consists of the provi-
dential mission of the church through the ages. "We have
nothing to say, or to suggest, to people who think like

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 123

that, and who look upon this ideal and eternal history as
a sort of immanent or continuous revelation. They are
standing outside of our field. I am referring to those
critics, who write universal histories of Christianity as
though it were one homogeneous whole, although they
know and admit that this material in their hands is a
part of the variable and more or less necessary successive
conditions of human life. How is it that they do not see
that their continuous and strf,ight line of presentation
rests on a very. slender thread of tradition and reflects a
diagrammatic and vague picture of things which can
hardly be reconciled?

The origin, growth, diffusion, organization, or even
disappearance (in some parts of the world, as in Asia
Minor and North Africa) of the Christian associations,
the various attitudes assumed by them toward the re-
mainder of practical life, the many links that connected
them with other political and social bodies and powers :
all these things, which make up a true and lifelike his-
tory, cannot be understood, unless we take our departure
from the complex conditions of each individual country,
in which the adherents of Christianity were few, or
many, or in which all the inhabitants and citizens were
Christians, either members of some modest sect, or of
imperious Catholicism, persecuted or tolerated, or them-
selves intolerant and persecuting others. Only in this way
do we set foot on solid ground and are enabled to esti-
mate objectively the historical claims of things. And
from this position to that of historical materialism we
advance with no more effort than is required in any
other branch of our knowledge of the past.

In brief, the history of real life is a history of The
Church, or of the various churches, that is to say, a

n

124 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

history o£ a society which has a certain economic basis,
which means a definite arrangement of its economy, and a
definite mode of acquiring, producing, distributing, and
consuming goods (which rests on the control of land— Woe
is me!) Others may continue to mean by Christianity
exclusively a mere complex of creeds and of opinions
concerning the destiny of mankind. But, 'to quote only
one illustration, these creeds differ as much as does the
free will of Catholicism after the council of Trent from
the absolute predestination of Calvin. And it is time
that those writers should become reconciled to the under-
standing that this complex of outlooks and tendencies a-
rose and developed within the circle of definite associa-
tions, which differed continually in various respects, and
which were always more or less surrounded by a vast and
complicated historical environment, to use a favorite
term of modern writers.

There is stiU another thing to consider. In that quar-
ter of an hour of scientific prose, in which we are living
at present, no thinking man will believe any more that
the great mass of believers in those associations of Christ-
ians had any accurate understanding of the different
dogmas, or of the subtile discussions of the learned and
professors. We do not know anything very precise about
the passions, interests, conditions of daily life, the nat-
ural and habitual state of mind, of the people of Antioch,
Alexandria, Constantinople, and others, who gathered
around the banners of Arius and Athanasius. "We can-
not describe these things as accurately as we can in the
case of present-day Naples or London. But we shall
never be credulous enough to believe that those crowds
understood one word of the dispute waged over the ques-
tion whether the substance of the Son was identical with

SOCIALISM AliTD PHILOSOPHY 125

that of the Father, or only similar to it. Nor shall we
measure the real difference between the artisans of Gen-
eva and those of Italy in the 16th century by the theore-
tical differences between Calvin and Bellarmino. In this
respect the history of Christianity remains very obscure,
because it has been handed down in an envelope of ideo-
logical concepts, which were the dogmatic and literary
reflex of the underlying development of the movement.
Under these circumstances we know relatively little of
the practical life of the Christian movement, and this
little dwindles to a minimum the more we approach the [
first centuries. — 1

Furthermore, the mass of the associates always pre-
served in their hearts, and carried into their inmost be-
liefs and into their legends, many of the superstitions
and most of the myths which had been theirs before they
were converted, and they had to use these, and create
others, in order to make the metaphysical and abstract
doctrines of Christianity -in some way plausible for
themselves. This came to pass quite visibly in the second
half of the second century, when Christian society had
lost some of the democratic character of comrades wait-
ing for the coming of a Kingdom of Heaven, comrades
who were all filled with the holy spirit, and began to as-
sume the form of organized Catholicism, not only in the
orthodox meaning of the term, but also in the sense of a
semi-political hierarchy of a multitude no longer com-
posed of saints, but of simple human beings. Then grew
that transfer of local, national, and ethnological super-
stitions, which accompanied the gradual transformation
of Christianity into an official and territorial church, to
the extent that the capable thinkers were zealously and
scrupulously picked out and separated from the great

126 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

mass of those, wio had simply to believe and conform to
ready-made rites and formalities. Gradually the Western
empire disintegrated, while the barbarians of the Ger-
man and Slavic tribes were forcibly converted, and in
proportion grew the power of those creeds, which be-
came the daily food of the masses, who were compelled to
adopt symbols and ideas which were as far beyond their
mental horizon as were those compounds of many differ-
ent semi-philosophies. All these Christian populations
lived, and continued to live, according to their manifold
faiths. For this reason they effectually transformed the
common elements of Christianity into ways and means
for new and specious mythologies. In view of this 'in-
dependent barbarian life, the definitions of the learned
and the decisions of the councils remained suspended in
'the air, became intangible conceptions for the multitude,
and assumed the garb of Utopian doctrines.

"What, then, were the reasons and causes, the aims and
means, which held the Christians together in those times,
in which religion is supposed to have been the sole ful-
crum and soul of all life? I will not discuss the insults
and violent assaults, which form one of those thorny
chapters, to which passionate adversaries of Christianity
usually resort. I will leave aside this chapter, which
unrolls before our eyes a history of the most odius tyran-
ny, the most ferocious and inhuman persecutions, and the
most refined hypocrisy. Tantum religio potuit suadere
malorum! So many evils could religion bring forth!
The point which I wish to emphasize especially is that
the principal force of cohesion is found precisely in those
despised material means, the use, management, and con-
trol of which promoted the growth of the association in-
to a powerful economic organization, with its own offices,

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 127

its own hierarchy, its own law, its own servants, slaves,
dependents, colonists, ministers, proteges and beneficiaries.
Ecclesiastic property represents many stages of vari-
ation, from the obolus of semi-communism to the legal
corporation, and from this to the concentration of the
serfs, to the constitution of the territorial complexes into
latifundian estates, followed by feudalism with its tithes
and trade in souls, up to the most modern attempts at
industrial colonization (the Jesuits), and so forth and so
forth. The poor were then, as they are largely now, held
together by gifts of charity, assistance to the sick, desti-
tute, orphans, widows, etc., by systematic management of
the fields, the clearing of newly acquired lands and their
cultivation. It is these means which made of the Christ-
ian association a vital thing, as they do of any other hu-
man collectivity. They permitted a handful of doctrin-
aires, especially in the Middle Ages, to press a vast eco-
nomic association into the service of relatively higher,
nobler, more altruistic and more progressive ends than
fell within the scope of strictly feudal property in the
hands of sovereign blackmailers, robbers, and pirates.
The bourgeoisie, in its different stages, later made an
end to this economy of the Christian people by more or
less rapid and revolutionary steps. It incorporated this
property in various ways in its private property and
made it fluid under the capitalist system. Wherever
ecclesiastic property partially resisted, or still resists, the
blows of this progressive age, it did, and does, for the
reason that it still performed some useful service, which
other organizations, and the state that represents them,
did not care to take upon themselves, or permitted to stay
in the hands of the church by way of competition.

The story of this economy is the essence of that inter-

128 • , SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

pretation of changes in Christianity, which further cri-
tique must elaborate. None other than Gregorovius Mag-
nus, who so early held the conviction that the bishop of
Eome was destined to hold sway in the disintegrated
empire of the West, and who is known generally to cul-
tured persons by his visions, by his love of music, and by
the apostolate of his delegate Augustine in Anglia, dic-
tated the economic laws by which the ecclesiastic lati-
fundia were administered. After the lapse of a few cen-
turies, throughout all the adversities of the imperfect
states and semi-political communities, which developed
within t"he boundaries of the always unstable and badly
reconstructed Western empire, it was this vast ecclesias-
tic property which, by its universal diffusion and pene-
tration, gave rise to that diplomacy, which from Gregory
VII. to Boniface VIII. aimed to make an heir of Augustus
out of the successor of Peter. This diplomacy was not
what it was, because its theory had been thought out by
monks in their cells, or because Gregory VII. and Inno-
cent III. were excellent men — of course, they were — ,
but because the possibilities for a great scheme of organi-
zation were offered only by that vast economic system.
But this system was combatted, not only by the other
more or less powerful rulers of that time, but also by
some portions of the plebeian population and of the just
developing bourgeoisie, in the more developed industrial
and commercial regions (for instance in Flanders, the
Provence, North-Italy), for various reasons, such as
monkish asceticism, or the civil liberty of Christians. In
fact, the humiliation heaped upon Boniface VIII. in An-
agni indicates merely the climax of the policy of Philip
the Fair, who, as a very early harbinger of the revolu-
tionary princes of the 16th century, for the first time had

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 129

the hardihood to lay hands upon the substance of the
Christian people.

And here I would fain stop in my digression. For this
economic history has not yet been written, and I am not
inclined to begin it with these passing hints.

However, it seems to me that the usual objectors will
say : But will everything else be clear, after this econo-
mic history has been written? Here we have once more
the ordinary case of those who build a house of cards in
order to have the pleasure of blowing it over. To explain
a process means generally to resolve it into its most ele-
mentary conditions, so far as we can discern and follow
their successive phases (from the lowest to the highest
limit) , passing from cause to effect.

No one will dream of claiming, for instance, that if we
are thoroughly familiar with the economic structure of
the city of Athens between the close of the 5th and the
beginning of the 4th century before Christ, we can then
pass straight on to an understanding of the whole ideo-
logical content of every dialogue of Plato, without'any
further ceremony, that is, without the critical assistance
of the intellectual elements gathered by tradition. We
must above all be able to explain Plato, the man, his
esthetic and mental disposition, his pessimism, his flight
away from the world, his idealism, and his utopianism.
All these things are products of conditions, which de-
veloped in the mind, of the individual Plato as they did
equally in, so many other contemporaries of his, who
otherwise could not have understood, admired, and fol-
lowed him to the extent of creating around him a sect,
which lived on for centuries with so many modifications.
If any one tries to separate this idealogical formation
from the environment in which it arose as a first precur-

130 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

sor of Christianity, lie would render it unintelligible, or
almost absurd.

This applies still more to those dispositions and inclin-
ations to fantastic or reflective thought, which gave rise
to the need of so many creeds, symbols, dogmas, legends,
in so vast an association as the Christian was, with its
many offices and its different relations. It is assuredly
easier to understand the relations, which lead in a gen-
eral way from certain determined material conditions of
common life to all those ideas, than to explain the par-
ticular content of each individual idea. This difficulty of
an adequate explanation is due to the fact that we are
dealing with times of terrible catastrophes, of indescrib-
able confusion, of decadence of the aptitudes for correct
science ; times, in brief, in which unprejudiced testimony,
critique, and public opinion are almost always missing,
and in which the strongest minds, isolated from life,
incline toward the abstruse, the subtile, the verbalistic.

It is indeed the difficulty of explaining precisely the
way in which ideas arise out of material conditions of
life, which lends strength to the argument of those, who
deny the possibility of clearly explaining the genesis of
Christianity. In general it is true that the phenomeno-
logy, or psychology, of religion, whatever you wish to
call it, presents great difficulties and carries within itself
rather obscure points. It is not always an easy matter
to understand fully, how the experienced facts of nature
and social life are transformed, at certain determined
times and under certain determined ethnological con-
ditions, and after passing through the crucible of some
particular^ fantasy, into persons, gods, angels, demons,
and then into attributes, emanations, and ornaments of
these same personifications, and finally into such ab-

socuLiSM AND philosophy; 131

stract and metaphysical entities as The Logos, infinite
Goodness, supreme Justice, etc. On this field of derived
and complicated psychic production we are still far re-
moved from the most elementary conditions necessary to
enable us by observation and experiment to follow the
rise and development of the first sensations from one ex-
treme to the other, that is, from the peripheral apparatus
to the cerebral centers, in which the irritations and vibra-
tions are converted into conscious apperception, into con-
sciousness.

But is this psychological difficulty a privilege of the
Christian creeds? Is it not characteristic of the genesis
of aU creeds, all mythical and religious imaginations? Are
the very original creations of the most primitive Budd-
hism, or the more second-hand collections of Mahomme-
danism, perhaps clearer? Or, going beyond these great
systems of religion, are the processes of fantasy in the
creation of the most elementary myths of our Aryan
forefathers perhaps clearer and more transparent at first
sight ? Is it, perhaps, easy to account for every detail in
all the transitions of fantasy in the course of centuries
and generations from the pramantha, that is, the stick
used in making fire by rubbing and chafing it against
another piece of wood, to the gradual rise of the hero
Prometheus? And yet this is the best known myth of
the Indo-European mythology. We have more data by
which we can follow its successive embryogenetic phases,
from the most ancient Vedic hymns in honor of the god
Agnl (fire) to the creation of the ethical and religious
tragedy of Aeschylus, than of any other myth.

Furthermore, such psychic productions of men of past
centuries present very peculiar difficulties of their own
to our understanding. We cannot easily reproduce in

•i

132 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY ~

ourselves the necessary conditions, by which we might
approach their state of mind concerning those produc-
tions. Long training is required, before we acquire that
aptitude of interpretation, which is characteristic of the
connoiseur of languages, of the philologist, the critic,
the student of prehistory, or the mental attitude of a
man, who through long training and repeated trials has
acquired an artificial consciousness, as it were, which is
congruous and consonant with the object of study.

Under these circumstances, Christianity (and I mean
here the creed, the doctrine, the myth, the symbol, the le-
gend, not merely the association in its oikonomika) be-
comes more easily intelligible to us to the extent that it
approaches our own time. We are surrounded by it, and
we have to consider all the time its consequences and its
influence on the literature and various philosophies with
which we are familiar. "We can observe every day, that
the multitude crudely combines ancient and modern su-
perstitions with a more or less indistinct general accepta-
tion of the underlying principle, which is common to all
confessions, namely the principle of redemption. We can
see Christianity at work and watch its accomplishments
and its struggles. And we are enabled to draw conclu-
sions from the present as to the past by analogy, which
places us in a position to undertake the interpretation of
more remote creeds. We also watch the creation of new
dogmas, new saints, new miracles, new pilgrimages. And
comparing this with the past, we may exclaim in most
cases: Tout comme chez nous! Just what we see today!
In other words, we have at our command a store of ob-
servation and experience in psychology, which permits us
to bring the past once more to life with less effort than
is needed for the purely documentary analysis of the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 133

conditions of most remote antiquity. How long is it that
we understand anything definite about the origin of
language ? It dates from the very moment that we rea-
lized that we have no better means of experience in this
respect than to study the way in which children stiU
learn to speak.

The problem of the origin of Christianity is further-
more obscured for many by still another prejudice. They
imagine that it is due to first causes which created it out
of nothing, as it were. These people forget that those
who became Christians did so by renouncing other re-
ligions ; and that the problem of the origin of Christi-
anity reduces itself above all to the prosaic task of study-
ing the way, in which the elements of former periods
took on new shapes within the environment of that asso-
ciation, which formed the actual nucleus of the new or-
ganization. This event took place in historical times.
And among those religions which preceded it, the most
noted is that of advanced Judaism, whose great masses
were waiting for the coming of a new Messiah, while its
doctrinaires were splitting fine hairs. We are also fairly
familiar with the cults, superstitions, and creeds of the
various Pagan religions in the Roman empire, and with
the religious inclinations of many of the thinkers of that
time, just as we know the leanings of the multitudes of
that period, who were ever ready to accept new faiths,
new promises, and good tidings.

It is, therefore, not a question of creation, but of
transformation, and we carry on our inquiry on the same
field as that of any other history. The question is, for
instance, (to give a few general hints), how Jesus became
the Messiah of the Jews (a primitive form of develop-
ment), how the Messiah of the Jews became the Re-

134 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

deemer of all mankind from sin (Paul), and finally, how
the Word combined with the Neo-Platonism of Philo
(fourth gospel). This is the outline of the ideological
development. And on the other hand we must find out,
how the primitive communistic association (a commun-
ism of consumption) of comrades expecting the impend-
ing end of the world and the final catastrophe (the
Apocalypse) became a congregation (a church), which
deferred the coming of the millennium indefinitely (the
second epistle of Peter) and grew into an organization
that evolved its own economy and progressively as-
sumed more complicated attributes and functions. In this
transition from a sect to a church, from naive expecta-
' tion to a complicated doctrine, lies the whole problem of
the origin of Christianity. With the expansion of the
association came in due time an adaptation on its part to
the prevailing forms of law, and the requirements of the
doctrine fell in with the diffusion of decadent Platonism.
Of course, we shall never be able to get close to those
things with our vision and observation by an intuitive
mode of chronicling. We shall never watch Philip, Mat-
thew, Peter, James, and their next successors, in conver-
sation, and so forth, in the way that we may observe
Camille Desmoulins in a cafe of the Palais Royal, at 3
P. M., on Sunday, July 12., 1789. We shall not be able
to follow the genesis and establishment of those dogmas
as we may the compilation of the articles of the Encyclo-
pedia. For we are dealing with times of vague impres-
sions and of fermentations such as have never been seen
since. Great moral epidemics invade the souls of men.
The most elementary relations of life approach a period
of acute crisis. Under the surface of that civilization of
the Mediterranean countries, whi»h combined the politi-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 135

cal and administrative power of the empire with all that
was most useful and refined in Hellenism, vegetated a
thousand forms of local barbarisms and festering and
rotten products of decadence. It is enough to remind the
reader that Christianity, as a thing in itself, took its
start, both in fact and in name, from Antioch, that cess-
pool of all vices, and that Paul addressed his subtile med-
itations, which show him to us in the light of one of those
Jews, who later compiled the Talmud, to the Galatians,
that is, to Jews scattered through a country of real bar-
barians. Christianity was spread among the lowly, the
outcasts, the plebeians, the slaves, the despairing multi-
tudes of those large cities, whose vicious life is to a small
degree revealed by the satires of Petronius and Juvenal,
the Voltairian tales of Lucian, or the grewsome writings
of Apuleius. Is there anything precise that we know
about the conditions of those Jews in the city of Eome,
among whom this new sad superstition, as Tacitus called
it, first developed, that superstition which in the course
of centuries grew into the most powerful social organism
ever known in history ? We cannot reconstruct those first
origins by intuitive descriptions, but must have recourse
to conjecture and combination. This is the main reason
for the interminable literature on this subject. And it
applies especially to the learned of Germany, who are in
the habit of calling such critical and erudite literature
theological, even though they are not believers them-
selves.

The relative obscurity of the first origins of Christian-
ity gives rise in the minds of many to the queer belief
in a true Christianity, which is supposed to have been
quite different from that other which later assumed the
name of Christian. This so-called true Christianity, or

136 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

original Christianity, wMch is in its turn so obscure that
every one can interpret it in his own way, serves often
as a motive for the polemics of those rationalists, who
hurl invectives against that historical church, which we
know by experience, and then extoll with a great flow of
oratory that ideal church, which is supposed to have
been the first communion of saints. This is but a histo-
rical myth, the same as the Sparta of the Athenian ora-
tors, the antique Eome of the decadent Ghibellines of
the 14th century, and all other fantastic creations of a
lost paradise, or of a future paradise which is as yet
out of our reach. This historical myth has assumed
various shapes. The sectarians, who revolted against
Catholicism in its inception or in its prime, these secta-
rians, whose democratic equality under definite histori-
cal conditions, from the Montanists to the Anabaptists,
rose in rebellion against the profanely worldly and
hierarchically orthodox church, felt the need of recon-
structing in their imagination the true Christianity, that
is, the simple primitive life of the first evangelists. At
the same time they wailed about the decadence, aberra-
tion, works of Satan, and the other things that happened
after that time. It is this truest of true Christianities,
which was often invoked by the naive communists, who
drew pictures of their own aspirations in the absence
of any other adequate ideas concerning the way of living
under these disgraceful conditions of inequality in this
unjust world. And these pictures could find inspiration
and color in the evangelical poetry and in so many
other true or fantastic records. This happened also to
Weitling, who on his part composed a Gospel of a Poor
Sinner. And why should I not mention those followers
of Saint Simon, who fabulized about a truer Christianity

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 137

of the future, into whicli they projected all the aspira-
tions of their heated imagination ?

.'For aU these and other reasons, there is hung in the
air, in the fantastic imagination of many, the picture of
an ultra-perfect Christianity, which shall be different,
or is absolutely different, from the one which vulgar
history knows and depicts, a Christianity that stoned
Stephen, that instituted the Holy Inquisition, which
dispatched so many multitudes of infidels to the other
world ; from the barefooted fisherman Peter, who played
the part of a Sancho Panza by his cowardly denials, to
Pope Pius, who consoled himself for the loss of his
temporal power by assuming infallibility; from the
spontaneous agape of the poor visited by the comforter
to the Jesuits who arm squadrons and contract commer-
cial loans, like daring harbingers of the colonial policy
of the bourgeois world; from the Eabbi of Nazareth,
who says that his kingdom is not of this world, to the
bishops and other prelates who occupy in his name from
one fifth to one third of the land, according to various
countries, and who rule as its sovereigns and proprie-
tors, enjoying even the jus primce noctis. Whoever be-
lieves in this so-called true Christianity, for one reason
or another, even were it only for literary hypocrisy pure
and simple, is naturally confronted by the obligation to
explain whence the other less true Christianity came
later on, which differed so completely from the one
which we know. And it is evident that this true Christ-
ianity must become a miracle, if not of revelation, at
least of human ideology. We are not obliged to furnish
an explanation for this miracle, either in the name of
materialism, or in the name of any other theory, for the
same reason, that no rational mechanics is obliged to

138 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

explain either the flight of Icarus or the hippogrifif of
Ariosto.

Nevertheless, we must not forget that this true
Christianity, this idgal antagonist of the positive and
realistically human Christianity, which we know and
which developed under conditions accessible to our re-
search, performed also a historical function, and serves
to-day in our hands as a key, by which we may enter
into the state of mind and conditions of life of the
primitive Christians. For this true Christianity is but
.a symbol of the various revolutions of the proletariat,
the plebians, the lowly, the manumitted, the serfs, the
exploited, up to the 16th century.

I had occasion, as I said once before in another letter,
to occupy myself at length in my academic lectures with
Fra Dolcino, who marks the culmination and impending
decline of the Apostolic sect. After I had described the
general conditions of the economic and political develop-
ment of Northern and Middle Italy, and those of the
particular environment (or of the social classes) in
which the Apostolic sect arose and developed, I had to
explain, at a certain point, the doctrine by which Dol-
cino held together the ranks of his followers, who were
intrepid and tenacious fighters to the last and worked
like heroes, martyrs, and harbingers of a new order of
human life. His doctrine was likewise one of those
apocalyptic returns to a purely evangelical Christianity.
It was a negation of everything which the hierarchy had
established since Pope Sylvester (at least the legendary
one), and this negation was reinforced by an apostolic
ardor, which the spirit of battle transformed into a duty
to fight. It is natural that the first explanation for these
ideas, as the literary men would say, should be sought

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 139

in similar, immediately preceding, movements of rebel-
lion against the hierarchy. By a short step we come to
the Albigenses, and by another short step to those eon-'
fused and manycolored popular movements known
under the common name of Paiarenian movements.
And on the other hand we must try to understand the
mystic and ascetic agitation, which often came near dis-
rupting the papal empire, from the theoretical commun^
ism of Joaquin of Fiore to the active resistance of the
Friars. If we penetrate another step into this inquiry,
it is not difficult to see that behind this mystic veil of
asceticism, and behind the exalted passion for true
Christianity, there lurked those material conditions and
material incentives, which rallied around certain sym-
bols of revolt the lowly monks, the peasants of those
countries, in which feudalism was still alive, the peasants
of other countries, who, having been freed from feudal-
ism, were forcibly proletarianized by the rapid forma-
tion of free communes, the poor people of these pitiless-
ly corporate communes themselves, and finally, as ever,
the idealists who espoused the cause of the oppressed
as their own: in other words, all the elements of social
revolution. From this close analysis we pass on to a
more general, or, I should say, typical one. The move-
ment of Dolcino is a link in that long chain of uprisings
on the part of the Christian people, who revolted against
the hierarchy with more or less good luck, and under
complicated conditions, and who in the most acute crises
came to the logical conclusion of espousing communism.
The classic example, which was the most vigorous, as
concerns circumstances of time, extension, and duration,
is certainly the uprising of the Anabaptists. However,
the revolt of the Dolcinians was by no means a small

140 SOCIALISJf AND PHILOSOPHY

matter, especially since tlie valley of tlie Po, in the be-
ginning of the 14th century, was precociously modern
in its economic conditions.

Now, the instinct of affinity turned the minds of the
representatives and leaders of revolting peoples to the
image, or to the confused memory, or to an approxima-
tive reproduction in imagination, of that primitive
Christianity, which consisted only of poor people, of
afflicted and suffering humanity hoping for redemption
from the miseries of this sinful world. True Christiani-
ty, to which these zealous rebels turned with so much
ardor of faith and fantasy, out of sympathies arising
from similar conditions, was a reality. It was a fact,
not in the sense of an ideal or type from which poor
weak humanity had strayed on account of mistakes or
bad vsdll, but in the sense of a sober historical reality.
Primitive Christianity was, with due allowance for
historical differences, much closer in type, as a whole, in
its aspects and incentives, to that which Montano, Dol-
eino, or Thomas Miinzer wanted to re-establish at in-
opportune times, than to all the dogmas, lithurgies, hier-
archic ranks, dominions and domains, political fights,
supremacies, inquisitions, and other vanities, around
which the sober and profane history of the church turns.
In these attempts of the medieval rebels we see, as it
were, a reproduction of an experiment of the past, we
recognize what must have been, approximately, the
original form of Christianity as a sect of perfect saints,
that is, of perfect equals, without any differences of
clergy and laymen, all of them equally partaking of the
holy spirit, revolutionists and worshippers in one, all
on the same level.

The most difficult and thorny problem in all the hi-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 141

story of Christianity is precisely this: To understand
by what means a sect of perfect equals was turned, in
the course of but two centuries, into an association
divided into hierarchic ranks, so that we have on one
side the mass of believers, and on the other the clergy
invested with sacred powers. This hierarchic division
is completed by a dogma, that is to say, by regulations
which suppress the spontaneousness of belief as a fact of
personal practice on the part of the individual believers.
A hierarchy means a rule by priests, an administration
of things and government of persons by the clergy.
This gives rise to political policies. And the inquiry into
these policies is the pith of the history of the third
century. The meeting of church and state in the fourth
century is but the result of the intermingling of two
policies, in which religion and the management of public
affairs are finally merged in one. This transition from
a free association to an organized semi-state, which is
responsible for the fact that the church has ever since
dabbled in politics, either in support of the state, or
against the state, or itself as a state, verifies but the"
truth of the statement that any organisation, which has
things to administer and offices to fiU, becomes of necessi-
ty a government. The church has reproduced within its
confines the same antagonisms as any other state, that
is, the antagonisms between rich and poor, protector and
protected, patron and client, owners and exploited, prin-
ces and subjects, sovereigns and oppressed. Therefore
is has had in its ranks class-struggles peculiar to itself,
for instance, struggles between a patrician hierarchy
and a plebian priesthood, between high and low clergy,
between Catholicism and sects. The sects were largely
inspired, up to the 16th century, by the idea of return-

142 SOCIALISM akd Philosoph*?

ing to the primitive Christianity, and for this reason
they often colored their designs on existing .conditions
by ideological inspirations smacking of utopianism. The
church, on the other hand, such as it grew to be,
followed the methods used by the profane state and be-
came a hierarchic congregation of unequals, instead of
equals with the holy spirit, and exercised the rights of
the privileged by means of oppression and violence, like
a perfect empire, some parts of which were ceded to
other rulers, with a superadded control of the souls,
which must go hand in hand with a government of
things, because souls cannot exist without material
things. These human characteristics, which, once that
a condition of economic inequality exists among men,
make any religious association similar to any other
government of things in this world, show at a glance
that an association of saints can never have had any
other but a Utopian form, and on the other hand they
show to us a constant tendency toward intolerance and
toward Catholicism in its various forms, to the extent
that this association, forgetting the simple martyr of
Nazareth, whose form has been left hanging pathetically
to the cross on the altars, has made its kingdom of this
world.

To stick to an illustration, which is familiar to me
through recent studies, the super-imperial papacy fell
in the person of Boniface VIII., just as had been pro-
phesied by Dolcino, who survived him for three years.
But it did not fall in order to give way to the apoca-
lypse. It is true, the humiliation of the exile at Avignon
was inflicted upon the papacy, but not to give way to
a new Cesarian empire, in keeping with Dante 's Utopia.
The indications of the modern era, the forebodings of

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 143

the bourgeois reign, were already manifest. Philip the
Fair, who for a long time had been reaching out for that
civil power, under which the bourgeoisie two centuries
later went through the first stage of its political rule
over society, condemned the Templars to death, as
though he wanted to say that the heroic poem of the
crusades ended by the hands of the Christians them-
selves. And in order that we might find the moral of
the situation even in the anecdote, which always exposes
and unmasks the strident passages on the irony of hi-
story, the agent of the Sire of France, who prepared the
humiliation of Anagni, was not a captain of the feudal
bands, but a civilian, who negotiated the money required
to cover a bill of exchange delivered to a banker of
Florence.

These legists, and princes usurping historical rights,
and bankers accumulating money that later on became
capital, were the people who initiated modern history,
which is so transparent in the prosaic structure of its
aims and means. On the ruins of corporate and feudal
society as well as on the ruins of the patrimony of eecle-
siasticism settled that cruel bourgeoisie which, suspicious
of mysterious forces, inaugurated the era of free thought
and free research. And now the bourgeoisie is waiting
to be dethroned. But assuredly this will not be done by
true Christianity, nor by the truest of the true.

Whether the people of the future, of whom we social-
ists often entertain such exalted ideas, will still produce
any religion or not, I can neither affirm nor deny. And
I leave it them to arrange their own lives, which will
not be easy, I hope, in order that they may not become
imbeciles in paradisian beatitude. But I see this much
clearly : Christianity, which in its entirety is up to now

144 ' SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHT

the religion of the most advanced nations, will not leave
any room for any other religion after it. Whoever will
not be a Christian henceforth will be without religion.
And in the second place I note that the socialists have
been wise enough to write into their platforms : Religion
is a private matter. I hope that no one will interpret
this statement in the sense of a theoretical point of view
which might lead to the elaboration of a philosophy of
religion. This wholly practical statement means simply
that for the present the socialists are too busy with more
useful and serious work than that kind which would
liken them to those Hebertists, Blanquists, Bakounists,
and others, who decreed the abolition of divinity and de-
capitated God ia effigy. The historical materialists
think, however, on their part and aside from all sub-
jective appreciation, that the people of the future will
very probably dispense with all transcendental explana-
tions of the practical problems of daily life. Primus
in orbe deos fecit timor! Fear was the first in this
world to make gods. The statement is very old. But it
is valuable, and therefore I perpetuate it.

Resina (Naples);, September 15, 1897.
Dear Sorel !

In re-reading, revising, retouching the letters which I
addressed to you from April to July of this year — I
intend to publish them — I find that they make up a
sort of series and on the whole deal with the same sub-
ject. Of course, if I had the intention of writing a book
worthy of some such high-sounding title as Socialism
and Science, or Historical Materialism and World Con^
ception, or the. like, I should have to sift this matter
anew by elaborate meditation. And then the thoughts
at which I have here merely hinted, the statements which
I have but roughly outlined, the observations which are
often made incidentally, and the bizarre criticisms
scattered here and there, in short all those things which
came to me as I wrote with a flowing pen would assume
quite a different form and would be differently arranged.
But since, in conversing with you at a distance, I have
made use of the liberties peculiar to conversation, I
shall now, in making these fleeting letters into a little
volume, head it with the modest and appropriate title:
A Discourse on Socialism and Philosophy. Letters to
G. Sorel.

It is the fault of the insistent advice of my friend
Benedetto Croce that I commit this new literary sin.
This blessed friend of mine became a torment and a
cross to me. After he had read these letters, he did not
give me any rest, until I promised him that I would pub-

145

146 SOCULISM ANO PHILOSOPHY

lish them in book form. If I were to follow him., I
should become in my old days a continuous and perpet-
ual producer of printed matter. I have always preferred
in the past to let the scattered manuscripts, which I
accumulated in the course of years in my capacity as
a teacher and passionate connoisseur of literature, slum-
ber quietly in my desk. But in the present case, Croce
continued to plead that it was my duty, now that Social-
ism was spreading in Italy, to take part, in such a way
and by such means as suited my inclinations, in the life
of the party that was growing and gaining strength.
And that may be so. Still it remains to be seen whether
the socialists feel the need of and a desire for, my help
and participation.

To tell the truth, I have never had any great inclina-
tion for public writing, and I have never acquired the
art of writing in prose. I have always written the
things as they came to me. I have always been, and still
am, passionately found of the art of oral instruction in
every form. And attending to this work with great in-
tensity, I have long lost the gift of repeating in writing
the things which I used to express spontaneously, in
ready and flexible speech, as fitted the occasion, preg-
nant with side issues and full of references. And who
can really repeat such things from memory? Later,
when I was born again in spirit and accepted Socialism,
I became more desirous of communicating with the pub-
lic by means of booklets, occasional letters, articles and
lectures, and these grew in time almost without my be-
ing aware of it. Are not these the duties and burdens
of the professional? Just then, about two years ago,
my blessed Mr. Croce came along at an opportune hour
with his advice that I should publish essays on scientific

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 147

socialism, in order to give to my activity as a socialist a
more solid footing. And, as one thing follows another,
these chance letters may likewise be regarded as a sub-
sidiary and supplementary essay on historical mater-
ialism.

It is evident, dear Sorel, that this discourse does not
concern you, but only me. For I am seeking an excuse,
as it were, to publish a new book, written by an Italian
living in Italy. If these letters should be read by others
in France besides you, those readers may probably say
that I have not won them over to historical materialism,
and perhaps they will justly repeat the observation of
some critics of my essays to the effect that the intellect-
ual moods of a nation are not changed by translations
.from a foreign language.*

While I am writing this with a view of bringing these
letters to a close, I have some misgivings whether I
^ight not want to continue them. Cannot letters be
multiplied indefinitely, just like fables and stories?
Fortunately I had made up my mind, when I first began,
to take up in a general way the problems which you

*In this little volume I intended to solve exclusively such prob-
lems as were raised in my mind in various ways by the ques-
tions and objections of Sorel. The reader cannot, therefore,
find any reply, either direct or indirect, in this book to the
various criticisms aimed against my essays. Passing over mere
carping reviews and leaving aside incidental polemics and the
gratuitous impertinence of some unmannered writers, I sincere-
ly thank Messieurs Andler, Durkheim, Gide, Seignobos, Xenopol,
Bourdeau, Bernheim, Pareto, Petrone, Croce, Gentile, and the
editors of "Ann6e Sociologique" and "Novoie Slovo," for the
lengthy reviews with which they honored me. I cannot refrain
from remarking that I have been the object of such opposite
observations as the following: "Tou are too Marxian," and
"Tou are no longer a Marxian." Both assertions are equally
unfounded. The truth is simply I have first accepted the theory
of historical materialism, and then I have treated it from the
point of view of modern science and — according to my own
intellectual temperament.

148 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

raised in your preface by toucliing iipoii sucli very
difScult questions. So one reason for coming to a close is
given by the outlines of your own article, to which I
have referred from time to time. If I were to abandon
myself to the sweep of conversation, who knows where I
would stop! The letters might grow into a literature.
You would not thank me for that a bit. But it would
please Mr. Croce, who would like to fill everybody with
his instinct for literary prolixity. In this respect he
forms a queer contrast to the leisurely habits of leisure-
ly Naples, where men, like the Lotus Eaters, who dis-
dained any other food, live in sweet enjoyment of the
present and seem to mock the philosophy of history in
plain view of the statue of G. B. Vico.

But I really wish to come to a close, and so I must
put down a few more brief remarks.

It seems to me, first of all, that you ask, not on ac-
count of any curiosity of your own, but because you art-
fully place yourself into the position of your readers:
Is there any way to explain to us in an easy and clear
manner in what consists that dialectics which is so
often invoked for the elucidation of the gist of histori-
cal materialism? And I think you might add that the
conception of this dialectics remains obscure for purely
empirical scientists, for the still surviving metaphysi-
cians, and for those popular evolutionists, who abandon
themselves so willingly to a general impression of what
is and happens, appears and disappears, is born and
dies, and who mean by evolution in the last resort the
unknowable, not the process of understanding. As a
matter of fact, by the dialectics we mean that rhythmic
movement of understanding, which tries to reproduce
the general outline of reality in the making.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 149

For my part— if these letters were not too long to
render such, a thing improbable — should I ever feel like
taking this matter up once more, I should, before an-
swering such difficult questions, remember that Grecian
poet, who, on being asked by the tyrant of Syracuse:
"What are the gods?" asked first for one day's respite,
then for a second, then for a third, and so on to infinity.
And yet the poets, who create, invent, praise, and cele-
brate the gods, ought to be more familiar with them
than I could be with dialectics, if a man held me in a
tight place and demanded imperiously that I should
answer him. I should take my time, a method of pro-
cedure not out of harmony with dialectic thought, and
I should say in so many words (and this reply is im-
plicit) : We cannot give ourselves an adequate account
of thought unless it be by an act of thinking. We must
become accustomed to the various modes of applying
thought by successive efforts. And it is always a dang-
erous thing to jump with both feet from the concrete
application of a certain concept to the formulation of
its general definition. And if I were hard pressed for a
reply, I should, in order to save the questioner the
trouble of long, arduous, and complicated study, recom-
mend a perusal of ANTI-DUEHBING, especially of
the chapter entitled The Negation of the Negation.

There, and throughout the whole book, it will be seen
that Bngels did not only make great efforts to explain
what he taught, but also tried to combat the wrong use
to which mental processes may be applied, as they are
by people who, instead of arriving at concrete thoughts
in which the mental faculty shows itself alive and fresh,
have an inclination to fall into a priori diagrams, or
into scholasticism. And be it said, without prejudice to

150 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the ignorant, that scholasticism was by no means ex
clusively confined to the learned of the Middle Ages,
and is not worn merely as a priestly robe. Scholasticism
may fasten itself upon any theory. Aristotle himself
was the first scholastic. He was, indeed, a good many
other things, above all a scientific genius. Scholasticism
is even presented in the name of Marx. The fact is
that the greatest difiiculty in the understanding and
further elaboration of historical materialism is not the
understanding of the formal aspects of Marxism, but
a possession of the facts in which those forms are im-
manent. Marx possessed some of these facts and elabor-
ated them, and there are many others left which we must
find out and elaborate for ourselves.

In the course of many years which I have spent in
education I became firmly convinced of the great injury
done to young minds by steeping them without warning
in formulae, diagrams, and definitions as though these
were the forerunners of real things, instead of leading
them by gradual and well weighed steps through a
chosen department of reality and first observing, com-
paring, and experimenting with actual objects before
formulating theories. In short, a definition placed at
the beginning of a study is meaningless. Definitions
take on a meaning only when genetically developed. In
the course of construction it is often seen how injurious
mere definitions are. The common interpretation given
by untutored minds to certain passages of the Roman
law is quite different from the real meaning. Teaching
is not an activity which produces a bare effect by means
of bare objects. It is rather an activity which gener-
ates another activity. In teaching we learn to under-
stand that the first germ of all philosophic thought is

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 151

always planted by the Socratie method, that is, by the
accomplished talent of generating ideas.*

*I would refer the reader to my work on THE DOCTRINE
OF SOCRATES, Naples, 1871, especially to pages 56 to 72,_ where
I discuss his method. I quote a few passages from this work,
just to show the "Socratie element" in any form of thought.

"The primitive state of human consciousness, while typical of
the primitive epoch of social development, still continues and
perpetuates itself in subsequent historical periods, because It
acquires a certain degree of lasting power through habit and
Axes its expression in myths and primitive poetry. The suc-
cessive rise and slow development of reflection. . .do not wholly
succeed in overcoming the diverse manifestations of the primi-
tive and unreasoning mind. The transformation of ancient
elements into consciously understood and expressed concepts
does not take place until after a long process, sn assiduous
and incessant struggle through centuries. This process of
transformation does not take place by the mere instrumentality
of those internal motives of criticism and research which may
be called theoretical. It is rather the necessary outcome of the
"practical collisions between the will of the individual and the
traditional opinions as expressed by customs." Still later It
assumes the character of "a social struggle between class and
class, individual and individual." In the history of this struggle,
one of the elements of primitive life which offers the greatest
material for contrasts. . .is the language. . .which assumes in
later periods the appearance of a rule to which all individuals
must necessarily and inevitably conform. But w^hen men no
longer agree instinctively in calling the same things just,

virtuous, honest, etc when they have lost faith in those

abstract types of legend and myth, in which the primitive mind
had deposited and expressed points of common agreement...
then there arises... in the individual the need of recovering
that certainty, which came from the agreement on a natural
and common criterion and he asks: What is it? This question
manifests the logical interest of Socrates." (Page 59.) — "The
external sameness of a word, which preserves a certain appear-
ance of uniformity in its constant phonetical value, helps but
to increase the confusion and uncertainty. For we are first
overcome by the illusion that the same words express the same
meaning, but in the long run we acquire the conviction of the
wide difference between our concepts and those of others. The
first Illusion thereby becomes so much more evident, and finally
it Is entirely dispelled." (Page 62). — "The question: What
is it? comprises the entire inquiry into the worth of a concept,
from its evident and determinable limits to the idea which we
have of it. The content of a concept, which seems at first sight
expressed by Its simple denomination, must be in reality ascer-

152 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

In recommending ANTI-DUEHBING, and tlie cited
chapter, I do not mean to make a catechism of these
things, but only to refer to them as an illustration of
ability in teaching. Arms and instruments serve their
purposes only so long as they are in use, not when hung
on the walls of museums.

By the way, if I did not have to come to a close, I
should like to dwell for a moment on that passage where
you say that Italy deserves the homage of all, because
it is the common cradle of all civilization. These words
might seem rather highsounding, seeing that, you are
speaking of socialism, which is really not greatly in-
debted to Italy. However, if it is true that socialism is
the outcome of advanced civilization, then the mature
and advanced of other countries may do well to turn
their eyes occasionally upon this cradle. By thinking
now and then of Italy, which for centuries made the
greater part of universal history, all will always be able
to learn something from us. And then they will per-
ceive that they already had this Italy at home as the
forerunner of that which they now are. Some French-
men have been of the opinion that Italy had been trans-

tained, in its essence and identity. And this cannot be accom-
plished by going from the top to the bottom, or, as we say,
deductively, because we still lack the conviction of the exist-
ence of an unconditional and absolute logical value." (Page 65.)
— "The point of departure, that is, the name which in its
simple phonetic unity was at first the center of research,
becomes ultimately the extreme limit of thought, which is
placed at the end of research by making of it consciously the
expression of a content due to deliberate thought. Then the
concrete images, which at first arranged themselves doubtfully
around a vague denomination, no longer dominate the new
synthesis and are compelled to disband and seek a new location.
And only the new element which is the outcome of research, or
the constant content of the object of inquiry found by way of
induction, can determine the co-ordination and subordination,
in which the images shall exist side by side." (Page 66-67.)

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 153

formed from a cradle into a tomb of civilization. And
like a tomb it must appear to all strangers who visit it
as though it were a museum, but are ignorant of our
present history. And in this they are wrong, and, how-
ever learned these visitors may be, to that extent they
remain ignorant of the actual life of our country, a life
which seems that of one risen from the dead. And this<
at least, is worthy of note.

In what does this rebirth of Italy really consist and
what prospects does it hold out to those who watch the
general progress of humanity without prejudice and
preconceived notions?* I will not speak of the great
difficulties, which must be overcome in the treatment of
the actual history of each country from an objective
point of view, that will not permit personal opinions to
influence scientific research. In the particular case of
Italy, we should have to go back to the 16th century,,
when the first beginnings of the capitalist era were in-
augurated by the Mediterranean countries, in which
Capitalism then had its principal seat. We should have
to reach the positive and negative, internal and external,
premises of the present conditions of Italy by way of the
history of successive decadence. It is not necessary for
me to say that my powers would not be equal to the
task. I do not feel the slightest temptation to undertake
it as an incident to an occasional and familiar discourse
like the present. The man who can compress such a
study into a book might claim to have made a contribu-

•When I first wrote these hasty outlines of the present con-
ditions in Italy, I made them rather lengthy. Later, when I
prepared these letters for the printer, I decided to make this
outline shorter. For in the not very distant future I intend to
publish another essay, in which I shall have occasion to speak
at sufficient length of the remote causes and immediate reasons
for the present conditions of our country.

154 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

tion to the mental expression of the actual situation and
of the actual thought life of the Italians.* Here we
have often blind optimists or blind pessimists among us,
in the sense in which unphilosophical people use these
terms. For in Italy there exists not only a great deal of
ignorance concerning the actual condition of other coun-
tries, but also a valuation of conditions at home by a
standard, which is entirely ideal, hjrpothetical, and often
Utopian, instead of comparative and practical. It is in-
deed^a singular case that here in our country, where the
sciences devoted to the observation of nature, sciences
really cultivated for particularistic and anti-philosophi-
cal reasons, have had such a rise, we should meet with
go little positive understanding of present social condi-
tions, while at the same time we have such an extra large
number of sociologists, who supply the seekers for truth
with definitions. But it is well known that the sociolo-
gists of all countries have a queer antipathy against the
study of history. And yet this same history is in the

*I made this analysis, at least in a summary fashion, In the
beginning. of my academy course of 1897-98, which was devoted
to the fall of the "Ancient R6gime." In order to explain the
catastrophic development of capitalist society In France, it
occurred to me to preface it with a general description of what
we call modern society. But the hampered or backward
development of Italian life deprives many Italians of a clear
vision of the capitalist world, and therefore it suited me to
give a precise statement of the causes, reasons, and manner of
development of present conditions in Italy. Many Italian
socialists did not see until recently that the obstacles to
capitalist development are so many obstacles to the formation
of a proletarian society capable of political action. To that
extent they were and remained Utopians, whether they liked it
or not. At that time, in December, 1897, I could not foresee
the hurricane, which broke loose in Italy In May, 1898. But
this hurricane found me at least prepared — to understand it.
And what else can we do under certain circumstances but to
understand?

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 155

opinion of the profane the very thing by which society
has developed.

Finally, few clearly see the fact that the Italian bour-
geoisie, which is already the object of scorn and hatred
on the part of the lowly, freed slaves, and exploited,
the same as in all other countries, and on the other
hand is pushed and crowded by the small tradesmen, is
unstable, restless, and diffident in its own ranks, because
it cannot compete with the capita,lists of other countries
on equal terms. For this reason, and for the other that
they have the Pope,* with his still marketable com-
modities which only the theoretical thinkers of liberalist
utopianism proclaim to be for ever outgrown, this
bourgeoisie, which must still rise, is intrinsically revo-
lutionary, as the Manifesto would put it. And since
they have not had a chance to be Jacobins, as they would
have liked very much to be, they have become used to the
formula of a king by the grace of God and the nation,
all in the same breath. Since this bourgeoisie could not
count on a rapid development of industry on a large
scale, which is in fact slow in coming, nor, consequently,

•Several times I had occasion, from 1887 until now, to combat
in speech and writing the attempts to reconcile Italy and the
Vatican. But I never appealed in my polemics either to ma-
terialism or to atheism, and the like, as the ideologists gen-
erally do. I appealed always to the practical interests of our
bourgeoisie, who, to say it in two words, cannot get along with-
out two things at the same time, namely the Hymn of Garibaldi
and the Royal March. The practical impossibility of a real
conservative party is one of the characteristic marks of our
country. For in order to conserve, we should have to destroy
here. Moreover our priests, who are as prosaic an the other
Italians, are always working for a Kingdom of Heaven on
earth, manage affairs like belated humanitarians, and import
theology, sacred instruction, Christian democracy, and con-
fessional treasuries as articles of luxury from Germany and
Austria.

156 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

on a rapid conquest of foreign markets, on aecouat of
the slow and uncertain progress of national economy
which is largely agricultural, they practice the mediocre
polities of expediency and spend all their talents in
adroitness. This is the part played recently for a
number of months by our navy in the Orient. It is
playing the role of the fox in the fable, who declared
that the grapes were sour, because he could not reach
them. But this fox finds itself among other foxes, who
guard the grapes or are about to seize them. And then
the fox becomes an idealist for want of anything posi-
tive. This Italian bourgeoisie feels itself in the role of
the whole nation, partly on account of the reactionary
or demagogical abstention of the clericals from political
activity, partly on account of the very slow development
of a proletarian opposition. In the absence of party
divisions in society, the bourgeoisie gave the name of
parties to the factions that gathered around captains or
proconsuls, enterprising or adventurous leaders. The
first appearance of Socialism struck them like lightning.
On the other hand, those deceive themselves who be-
lieve that every commotion of the multitude in this
country, such as we have witnessed several times in vari-
ous places of Italy, is an indication of a proletarian
movement, which has for its concrete basis the economic
struggle and turns its aspirations more or less explicitly
in the direction of the socialism of other countries.
More often these commotions are like revolts of ele-
mentary forces against a state of things, in which these
forces do not find that controlling discipline which is
typical of a bourgeois rule tending to train the prole-
tariat in squads. Look, for instance, at the aggravated
phenomenon of emigration, which, with a few excep-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 157

tions, carries away men, who are able to offer to capita-
list exploitation in foreign countries strong arms, incom-
parable diligence, and stomachs capable of any amount
of privation. They are, in short, laborers from the
fields who are superfluous, or artisans from decaying
trades, whom the rule of capitalist education would join
in squads for factory labor, if industry on a large scale
were ready to develop that sort of thing, or whom our
home capital would invite to our home colonies, if we
had any, and if we had not been seized by the craze of
founding colonies in places where it is almost impossible
to do so.*

Italy has become during recent years, for very natural
reasons, the promised land of decadents, self-glorifiers,
shallow critics, fastidious and posing sceptics. The sane
and veracious part of the socialist movement ( which has
no other duties to perform for the present under the
prevailing circumstances but to prepare the small mid-
dle class for democratic education) therefore contains
admixtures of elements, who would have to admit to

*"Italy has need of material, moral, and intellectual progress.
I hope that you will see an Italy, in which the backward man-
agement of agriculture will be supplanted by machinery and
chemistry on a large scale; and that you will see the generative
power of electricity, which alone can make up for our lack of
coal, hitched to the superior courses of rivers, or, perhaps, to
the waves of the sea and the winds. I look forward to a time
when you will no longer see any illiterates in Italy, and there-
fore no longer any men who are not citizens and mobs who are
not people. Tou will, perhaps, witness and take part in politics
that will be directed in conformity with an understanding of
growing culture and increased economic power, instead of base
alliances and fantastically adventurous enterprises ending in
acts of prudence which seem vile." — Thus I spoke last year, in
my inaugural address at the university of Rome, on November
14, addressing myself to the students. It was precisely these
words which made such a stir. (See "The University and the
Freedom of Jcience," Rome, 1897, page 50.)

158 SOCIALISM AND PHlLOSOPHlT

themselves, if they wanted to be honest with themselves,
that they are decadents, that they are not moved to be-
stir themselves by the strong will to live, but by a vague
satiety with the present. They are merely satiated and
bored bohemians.

But I must really come to a close. It seems to me,
however, that I hear a small voice of protest coming
from those comrades,who are always so ready to raise
objections. And this voice says : "All this is sophistry
and doctrinairism. What we need is practice." Cer-
tainly, I agree with you, you are right. Socialism has
so long been Utopian, scheming, offhand, and visionary,
that it is well to repeat now all the time that what we
need is practice. For the minds of those who adopt
socialism should never be out of touch with the things
of the actual world, should continually study their
field, in which they are compelled to work hard for a
clear road. But my supposed critic should take care not
to become a doctrinaire himself. For this term desig-
nates for those who understand it a certain mental dis-
position to Idse one's self in abstractions and to claim
that ideas which are pronounced excellent in themselves,
and fruits which have been collected by experience at
different times and places, can be applied straight to
concrete cases and are good for all times and places.
The practice of the socialist parties in their relations
with other politics has so far been exercised rather in
keeping with rational requirements than with science.
It is the outcome of constant observation, of an inces-
sant adaptation to new conditions. It is the tested
fruit of the struggle for an alignment of often different
and antagonistic tendencies of the proletariat in the
same direction. It is the endeavor to bring practical

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 159

plans to a realization by the help of a clear under-
standing of all the complicated and intricate interrela-
tions which hold together the world in which we are
living. If it were not so, with what right and by what
claim could we speak of a vaunted Marxism ? If histori-
cal materialism does not hold good, it means that the
prospects for the coming of socialism are doubtful, and
that our thought of a future society is a Utopian dream.

Too often it is true, that all our contemporaneous
socialism still contains within itself some latent germs of
a new utopianism.*

This is the case with those who continuously harp on
the dogma of the necessity of evolution, which they con-
found with a certain right to a better condition. And
they say that the future society of coUectivist economic,
production, with all its technical and pedagogic conse-
quences, will come because it should come. They seem to
forget that this future society must be produced by hu-
man beings themselves in response to the demands of the
conditions in which they now live and by the develop-
ment of their own aptitudes. Blessed are those who
measure the future of history and the right to progress
with the yardstick of a life insurance policy !

Those dogmatists of cheap ideas forget several things.
In the first place, they forget that the future, just be-
cause it is a future which will be a present when we are

•Bernstein wrote recently with great ability some Ingenious
articles in the NEUE ZEIT on the utopianism latent in some
Marxists. And many, whom the shoe fitted, may have asked
themselves: "Does that concern me?" (When I wrote this in
1897, I never dreamed that this Bernstein, whose critique I
praised simply in so far as it was a critique, would be carried
around the world as the greatest example of a reformist, by
the salesmen of the "crisis of Marxism." — Note to the new
edition.)

160 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

of the past, cannot be used as a practical criterion for
our present actions. It will be the thing at which we
wish to arrive, but not the way by which to reach it. In
the second place, the experience of these last fifty years
should convince those, who can think critically, of the
following truth: To the extent that the capacity for
organization in a class party wiU grow among prole-
tarians and small trades people, the process of this
complicated movement will itself furnish the proof that
the development of the new era will have to be meas-
ured by a standard of time considerably slower than
that first assumed by the early socialists who were still
tainted with Jacobine memories. It is evident that we
cannot look forward across such long stretches of time
with very great certitude. "We must take into account
the enormous complexity of modern life and the vast
expansion of capitalism, or of bourgeois society.* Who
cannot see that the Pacific is now taking the place of
the Atlantic Ocean, just as the Atlantic once upon a
time took the place of the Mediterranean Sea ? Finally,
in the third place, the practical science of socialism con-
sists in the clear observation of all the complicated pro-
cesses of the economic world, and in a simultaneous
study of the conditions in which the proletariat lives,
becomes capable of concentration in a class party, and

•The multiplication of the centers of production and the
resulting complexity of interrelations have also led to a change
in commercial crises. In the place of the periodical spasms,
which in Marx's time came every ten years in the typical exam-
ple of England, we have now a diffuse and chronic state of
depression. This has been turned into a weighty argument by
those who combat the Idea of catastrophes. In short, they
attempt to make Marxism' as a theory responsible for the
errors of prevision and calculation, which Marx was liable to
make, because he lived in a certain environment limited by
space and time and circumstances.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 161

carries into this successive concentration the spirit which
it needs in the economic struggle that shapes its own
peculiar politics. Upon these present data we can base
sufficiently clear calculations of our forecast and make
connection with that point where the proletariat be-
comes dominant and shapes the political policies of the
state. This point must coincide with the one where
capitalism becomes unfit to rule. And from this point,
which no one can very well imagine to be a noisy affray,
we shaU have the beginning of that thing which many,
with tiresome persistency, call the social revolution par
excellence, I don't know why, since the entire history
is a series of social revolutions. To go beyond that point
with our reasoning would be to mistake it for a fabric
of our imagination.

The time of the prophets is past. Happy thou, Pra
Dolcino, who in thy three letters* wast able to trans-
figure the fleeting incidents of politics (such as pope
Celestine and pope Boniface VIII., the champions of
Anjou and Aragon, the Guelfs and the Ghibellines, the
poor plebs and the patricians of the communes, and so
forth) into types which had already been symbolized by
the prophets and the Apocalypse, measuring the periods
of providence by successive corrections according to
years, months, and days. But thou wast a hero. And
this proves that these fantasies were not the cause of
thy struggles, but rather their ideological envelope, by
means of which thou gavest an account to thyself, in
the way that many others did, for a whole century in
advance of thyself and Francis of Assisi, of the des-
perate movement of the plebeians against the papal

•Of one of these letters we have only fragments by indirec-
tion.

162 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

hierarchy, against the growing bourgeoisie in the com-
munes, and the rising monarchy. But all these envel-
opes have been torn, including the religion of ideas,
as some would say who employ a hypocritical jargon out
of superstitious reverence for the religion of others.
Nowadays only the imbeciles are permitted to remain
Utopians. The Utopia of imbeciles is either a ridiculous
thing, or a pet idea of literary men, who pay a visit to
that children's phalanstery which Bellamy built. Our
humble Marx, on the other hand, wholly a prosaic man
of science, went about modestly coUeeting in present
society the indications for its transition into the coming
society, for instance, the rise of co-operatives (real
ones!) in England and similar things, and to him fell
the task (especially by the work spent on the Interna-
tional) to be the midwife of the future, which is not
quite the same as being its fanciful builder. He and
Engels spoke of the society of the future, assuming the
dictatorship of the proletariat as a fact, not from the
intuitive point of view of one who thinks he can see it
before him, but from the point of view of a principle
of formation of the economic structure which should de-
velop in opposition to the present society.*

For the rest, if any one feels the need of living in
the future as though he could feel it and try it on his
own skin, and if he stammers in the name of such ideas
and wants to invest members of the future society with
their rights and duties, let him go ahead. I hope he
will permit me, who has also a sort of right to send his
visiting card to posterity, to express the sentiment that
the people of the future will not lay aside their human

•For information on this point see the quotations at the end
of my essay on "Historical Materialism."

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHT 163

nature to such an extent as to be no longer comparable
to us of the present, and that they will have enough of
the dialectic joy of laughter left to crack jokes over the
prophets of today.

Now I close for good. And it is for you to recom-
mence, if you should ever desire to do so.

APPENDIX

AUTHOR'S POSTSCRIPT TO THE
FRENCH EDITION.

Frascati (Rome), September 10, 1898.

While Sorel has not given any sign of recommencing
up to the present time, it may be that he will still do so.
However, I have good reasons to fear that he will take
quite a different road than I expected, if he should
recommence, since now he is talking of his Crisis of
Scientific Socialism (See his article in Critica Sociale,
May 1, 1898, pages 134-138), which he wrote with refer-
ence to the same publications of Merlino, which he had
so severely criticised the year before, in Le Devenir
Social (October, 1897, pages 854-858).

But whether he does or does not recommence the dis-
cussion of the general problems which I treated in the
foregoing letters addressed to him, I feel compelled to
state at this place, in order to avoid misunderstanding
and save the reader from mistakes, that I shall not follow
him in his immature and premature lucubrations on the
theory of value (in the Journal des Economist es, Paris,
May 15, 1897 ; Sozialistische Monatshefte, Berlin, August,
1897; Giornale degli Economisti, Rome, July, 1898).
Without entering into the merits of these lucubrations,
a thing which cannot be done in passing, or as a pastime,
I want to say that I don't care to share the indefinite
company of Sorel merely for the pleasure of being

164

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 165

quoted among the examples for a crisis of Marxism (See
Th. Masaryk, Die Erise des Marxismus, Vienna, 1898,
French translation in the Bevue de Sociologie, July,
1898, where Sorel is quoted in support of this precious
literary discovery). In my opinion there are many
dramatis personcs in this alleged crisis, who either have
not learned their lines very well, or are afraid to learn
them, or recite them wretchedly.

The same reservation I must also make in regard to
Croce, and I make it with some insistence, so far as his
memorial on The Intepretation and Critique of some
Concepts of Marxism is concerned, which was published
in Naples, in 1897, and reproduced in Le Devenir Social,
volume IV, February and March, 1898.

Although this work is supposed to be a free review
of my Socialism and Philosophy (as the author himself
says on page 3) , the fact it that aside from some useful
observation on historical methods and a few sagacious
remarks on political tactics it contains theoretical enun-
ciations, which have nothing to do with my' publications
and opinions, but are rather diametrically opposed to
them. Should I now engage oiScially in an explicit
polemic against the whole dissertation, which is worthy
of perusal for so many other reasons? But why should
I? What good would it do? I gladly let the free
reviewer enjoy his liberty of opinion, so long as it does
not pass in the eyes of the reader for a complement of
my own, and at that as a complement endorsed by
myself.

However, I cannot confine myself to the general reser-
vation, which is sufficient in the case of Sorel. I must
rather take up a few general points of criticism.

166 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

I pass without further notice over the subtile and
scholastic distinctions, upon which Croce insists, such as
that between pure and appUed science, economic and
moral man, egoism and utility, what we are and what
we should he, and so forth, because a tolerance of tradi-
tional scholasticism is largely a part of my profession.
This scholasticism may serve to giveJ;o youthful ingenu-
ousness its first training, but it is never a full and con-
crete science. How is the astronomer ever going to
prevent people from saying that the sun rises and sets?
I might refer to another case similar in logic an(J about
in line with this one, treated in chapters VI and VIII
of my essay on Historical Materialism. There I have
shown, step by step, that the elements which are indis-
pensable as a material for experimental and direct cogni-
tion, turn at a certain point into aspects, or into parts
of a complex mental combination, as the case may be.
But, I ask for the sake of greater clearness, how can a
man, whose mind is still engrossed in such a narrow
logic of first experimental cognition, undertake to grap-
ple with the problem of Marxism, which stands above
such vulgar distinctions, or, to be polite toward our
adversaries, professes to stand above them? Is not this
a fight with too unequal weapons? I should like to
invite Croce to try his art of critique on some other
field, to read critically some treatise on Energetica, for
instance the recent one of Helm, to let Helmholtz, R.
Mayer, and such men, go to the devil, and restore to
honor and worship the common sense for which light
always shines and heat is always warm.

But where does Croce get the idea— and that when
dealing with Marx— that aside from the various econ-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 167

omies succeeding one another in history, of which the
economy of capitalist industry is a particular case (but,
mark well, the only case which has so far produced its
theory, represented by many schools and schools of
schools) , there exists a pure economy, which sheds light
all of its own accord and explains all those cases, or let
us say, all those forms of prosaic experience ? An animal
in itself, aside from the visible and palpable animals?
And what is the content of this economy of super-
historical and supersocial man, who becomes more bother-
some than all the supermen of literature and philosophy ?
Is it, perhaps, a naked doctrine of wants and appetites,
based solely on the natural environment, but without
any experience through labor, without tools, and without
precise interrelations of common life and society ? This
conjecture might probably pass as an explanation of
the psychology of prehistorical life. But no, this economy
of man in himself is supposed to be perpetual and still
existing. And here is where I get lost. For instance,
he tells us on page 19: "I hold firmly to the economic
construction of the hedonist principle, to marginal util-
ity, to final utility, and finally to the economic explana-
tion of profit on capital as arising from different degrees
of utility of the present and future goods. But this does
not do away with the necessity of a sociological explana-
tion of profits on capital. And this explanation, with
others of the same nature, cannot be found in any other
way than the one in which Marx sought it." My friend
Croce is quite an insatiable fellow, and for this reason
he might seem rather capricious to those who don't know
him. He swallows at one mouth full a whole system of
economics, a system which pretends to embrace all

168 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

economic knowledge. This system, by the way, is well
enough known in Italy, where it has prominent represen-
tatives, and even some who have continued and perfected
it, such as Barone, who, it is claimed, elaborated the
theory of distribution. In affirming his confession of
faith, which cannot help being full of gladness, seeing
that it is hedonistic, he makes a special bid for admira-
tion by his statement that he accepts the economic expla-
nation (it could not well be other than economic) of
"profit on capital as arising from different degrees of
utility of the present and future goods." And now he
might as well say that Marx was ignorant and wasted
his time, when he devoted so much effort in his researches
into the origin, production, and distribution of surplus-
value, for which he looked in an entirely different direc-
tion from Croce. For this, in the last analysis, was
Marx's essential and specific contribution to economics
as a critic and innovator. The blessed formula of MM',
that is, of money returned with more money, was so to
say the fitxed idea in the mind of the explorer Marx, the
pivot of his entire research. Now Croce, having made
his confession of faith as a convinced hedonist, acts like
a man who has eaten and drunk his fill and wants to eat
and drink some more by turning to Marx in the quest
after a sociological theory, which should supplement the
other one, which Croce so firmly and decisively accepts.
Of course, Marx cannot tell him anything else but this :
"Chase your hedonistic mincemeat to the devil. Don't
ask me any questions about such nonsense. I can offer
you only the direct opposite." In fact, Croce is com-
pelled to make up a Marx more or less different from
the real one, so that he may have a Marx whose principles

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 169

may seem reconcilable with those undebatable ones of
hedonism. In speaking of the way, in which Marx
"could succeed in discovering and defining the social
origin of profit, or surplus-value, ' ' he writes the follow-
ing sentence: " Surplus- value, in pure economy, is a
meaningless term, as the term itself shows, since surplus-
value is extra- value and passes out of the field of econom-
ies. But it has a meaning, and is not absurd, as a con-
cept of a distinction made in comparing one society with
another, one fact with another, or two hypotheses with
one another." And then he adds in a note: "I make
amends for an error which I committed in one of my
former essays, in which, while saying correctly that
surplus-value is not a purely economic concept, I defined
it further inexactly as a moral concept. And I should
rather, have said, as I say now, that surplus-value is a
concept of a difference between economic sociology and
applied economics, and not of pure economics. Morals
has nothing to do with this, and it has no part in the
entire analysis of Marx." I would advise Croce, when
he writes his third memorial, to confess that he could
make amends for his first error, for it was at least a
generalization of an opinion commonly held by vulgar
socialism, namely, that surplus-value is the thing, on
account of which the exploited are protesting; but that
he has no excuse for his second error, because he is no
longer capable of deciphering his own thoughts. And
this is true not merely because he continually confounds
profit, interest, and surplus-value, but because he assumes
in more than one place that there is such a thing as a
laboring society as a form in itself (perhaps in distinc-
tion from a society of saints in paradise ?) . And he says :

170 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

"Marx compared capitalist society with one of its own
parts, isolated and elevated to an independent existence ;
in other words, he compared capitalist society witii an
economic society by itself (but only in so far as it is a
laboring society)." And he continues: "The Marxian
economy is one which studies the abstract laboring
society."

If any one should feel the need of freeing himself
from the accursed metaphysical bacillus, which is to
blame for such arguments as these, I would recommend
to him as a remedy the perusal, not of the polemics of
economists, not even those of Germany, who wrote their
criticisms of the works of Dietzel, since these may seem
doubtful, but of the Logic of Wundt (Vol. II, Part II,
pages 499-533). In this Logic, by the way, you will
find, on other pages than those just cited, that surplus-
Value is precisely used as an illustration of a typical
case of a social law. Would you believe it ! And Wundt
is not particularly kind, either to the sociologists, or to
the so-called social laws.*

Finally, then, this so-called pure economics, as it is
called in Italy, which is always the land of emphasis or
exaggeration, or this method of research and systematiza-
tion, which developed on the weak, unfamiliar, or for-
gotten foundations laid by Gossen, Walrass, and Jevons,
and is now vulgarly known by the name of the Austrian
school, is merely a variety of theoretical interpretation
for the same empirical facts of modern economic life,
which have always been the object of study of so many

•Wundt was never quite free from metaphysical ideologies,
and in his later work he frankly relapsed into metaphysics. —
Translator.

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 171

other schools. It is distinguished from the classic school
(which was not so anti-historical as some would have us
helieve, and as R. Schiiller showed in his work, Die
hlassische Nationalokonomie, Berlin, 1895) by a greater
tendency to abstraction and generalization. It strives
to make more evident the psychological stages which
accompany the economic processes and relations. It uses
and misuses mathematical expedients. It is not entirely
superhistorical, although it often stages characters like
Robinson Crusoe, whom it tries to hide afterwards under
the cloak of subtile individualistic psychology. Indeed,
it is so little superhistorical that it assumes from actual
history two concepts and molds them into theoretical
extremes, namely the liberty to work and the liberty of
competition, which have been carried to their maximum
as hypotheses. For this reason it is palpable, compre-
hensible, and debatable on the points which it seeks to
make, because it can be confronted with the experiences,
of which it is often a forced and onesided interpretation.
The general public in France has now an opportunity
to read a clear and full explanation of the theory of
value of this school in E. Petit 's book Etude critique
des differentes Theories de la Valeur, Paris, 1897.

Returning to Croce, I do not know how to conceal my
astonishment over his ridicule of Bngels, who speaks of
the science of economics as historical in one place, and
as theoretical in another. For those who cling to words
it will be enough to say, that historical, as applied in this
case, is the opposite of the fixed and immutable idea of
nature (such as the famous natural laws of vulgar
economy) , and theoretical is used as the opposite of the
grossly descriptive and empirical method of knowledge.

172 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

But that is not all. Every theory is but a more or less
perfect presentation of the relative conditions of certain
facts, which appear homogeneous, reconcilable, and con-
nected in any field of knowledge. But all these various
groups are elements of a process of development. Now,
if some physiologist, after having explained the physical
and mechanical theory of lung breathing, should close
by saying that breathing is not dependent exclusively
on lungs, and that lungs themselves are but one par-
ticular product in the general history of the growth of
organisms, would you want to drag this physiologist as
a defendant before the court of some other pure science,
for instance, before the court of purest physiology, which
studies the metaphysical entity Life instead of living
beings?

In fact, Croce upbraids Marx in more than one place
for not having established points of relationship between
his method and the concepts of pure economy, in order
to show "by a methodical exposition that the apparently
most widely differing facts of the economic world are
ultimately governed by the same law, or, what amounts
to the same, that this law shows itself in different ways
in passing through different organizations without any
change on its own part, for otherwise the mode and
criterion of the explanation itself would be missing."
If Marx were in a position to reply to this, he would
not know what to say. This is beyond Marx. Nor is it
even a question any longer of such abstract generaliza-
tions of the hedonistic school as are commonly 'used in
legitimate processes of abstraction and isolation by all
sciences that seek to derive principles by starting out
from an empirical basis. Here we find ourselves in the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 173

presence of an economic law which assumes the guise of
an entity, as it were, and passes mysteriously through
the various phases of history, in order that they may
not have to part. That is the pure possible, which in
reality turns out to be the real impossible. "Diihring is a
back number, even if he is defended occasionally by
Croce. Here it is a question of re-encountering difficulties
in the preliminary conception of every scientific problem
which , exclude from comprehension not only Marx, but
three quarters of the contemporaneous thought. The
formal logic of blessed memory becomes the arbiter of
knowledge. Let us remember, however, that Port-Royal
"Logic" used to have an extended sale throughout
France. You start out with a concept of the greatest
extension and the smallest content, and by means of
mechanically increased notations you arrive at a concept
of the smallest extension and the greatest content. Then,
if we come across a real process, such as the transition
from invertebrates to vertebrates, or from primitive com-
munism to private property of the land, or from un-
differentiated root words to differentiated verbs and
nouns in the Aryan and Semitic groups, we do not regard
these facts as the outcome of a slow and real process of
actual development, but we take recourse to a nice and
preconceived concept and write by a facile method of
notation first an A, then an a, then an a', and an a",
then an a'", and so forth, and everything will be lovely.
I think this will do on this point.

As a result, we come across the following somewhat
queer statements: The society studied by Marx in
Capital "is an ideal and diagrammatic society, de-
duced from a few hypotheses, which might eventually

174 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

not have been realized in the course of history" (page 2).
Here Marx becomes a theoretical illustrator of a sort of
Utopia. Then we read on page 4 that "Marx assumed
outside of the camp of pure economic theory a proposi-
tion which amounts to the famous equality of value and
labor." Indeed, where did he get it? Did he find it,
perhaps, as some say, by "pushing to its -ultimate conse-
quences a rather unfortunate concept of Ricardo" ? This
Ricardo ought to be expelled in short order from the
history of science, because he did not hit upon a more
fortunate term. At another place (page 20, footnote)
Croce takes issue with Pantaleoni, because this writer
"combats Bohm-Bawerk and asks him, where the bor-
rower of capital gets the money to pay interest with."
Pantaleoni says indeed on page 301 of his Principii
di Economia PoUtica: "The generative cause 'of
interest is found in the productivity of capital in its
capacity as a supplementary factor in a lucrative tech-
nical process requiring a certain time, not in the virtue
of time, which would leave things as it found them."
Here, and throughout one whole chapter, Pantaleoni
repeats in the manner peculiar to his school, and in his
own style, that explanation of interest through the
productivity of (money-)capital, which came out
victor as early as the 17th century in the controversies
with the moralists and canonists and assumed its elemen-
tary economic form for the first time in Barbon and
Massey. This is the only explanation which the economist
can give, until the productivity of capital, which appears
evident on the face of things, is itself made an object of
analysis. It is this which Marx has later carried out.
into the more general formula and genetic principle of

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 175

surplus-value. In this same chapter, Pantaleom engages
in an able controversy against Bohm-Bawerk, who, to
speak with Croee, "gives an (economic) explanation of
profit on capital as arising from the different degrees of
utility of the present and future goods. ' '*

Would you enact for your pastime the following ideo-
logical farce : Assume on one side the legitimate expecta-
tion of the creditor, and on the other the honest promise
of the debtor? Place these two psychological attributes,,'
which speak so well for the excellence of their minds, in
due evidence. Then suppose that both creditor and
debtor are as perfact economic men as they must be
presmned to be after they have been bom with the trade-
mark of Grossen stamped upon their brains.** Then add
the notion of abstract time.

After thus constituting the Holy Trinity of expecta-
tion, promise, and time, attribute to it the power of con-

•In revising the proof sheets it occurs to me that the reader
might be in doubt about the character of this writer. Panta-
leoni, whom I defend at this place, is himself a representative
of that hedonism which Croce, employing the well-known
illustration of the two foci of an ellipse, would like to reconcile
with Marxism. He is even an extreme representative of that
school. Pantaleoni is so extreme in his partisanship, that in
his introduction to his course at Geneva, in this semester, (see
his "Prolusione," reproduced in the November issue of the
"Giornale Degli Bconomisti," page 407-431) he expels the name
of Marx from the history of science — which cannot register any
errors! — (See page 427.) He has a very poor opinion of the
socialists, especially those of Italy, and regards them as fools,
apostles of violence, and worse (see his letter of August 12, this
year, on pages 101-110 of the work of professor Pareto on "La
Liberie Economique et les Bvfinements d'ltalie," Lausanne,
1898, especially pages 103 and following).

•*I take pleasure in referring for this trademark to the
strong criticism of the very sagacious Lexis in his article on
marginal utility In the supplementary volume of the "Hand-
worterbuch" of Conrad.

176 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

verting itself into that surplus of value which must be
contained, say, in the boots produced with the borrowed
money. For the borrower, if he would pay off his debt
with interest, must die of starvation, unless he can him-
self gain something by the transaction. But this is put-
ting an iron collar upon science. In reality, time in
economics as well as in nature is simply a measure of a
process. Particularly in economics it is a measure of the
processes of production and circulation (in other words,
and in the last analysis, a measure of labor) . And time
is also a measure of interest only to the extent that it
enters into economics in this way. A time which oper-
ates as a real cause as time in itself is a creature of
mythology. (On the mythical survivals in the represen-
tation of time read Zeit und Weile in the Ideale Fragen
of Lazarus, Berlin, 1878, pages 161—232). If we are to
return to mythology, then let us place that most ancient
Kronos, whom the common Grecian people confounded
with chronos (time), on his throne in heaven high above
Mount Olympus. And if expectations, promises, and
hopes are by themselves real causes of economic facts,
then let us give ourselves without reserve to magic. ■

Either through inadvertence, or by means of a bizarre
literary form, it appears as though Croce were butting
his head against magic when he writes on page 16 : "And
if in Marx's hypothesis the commodities appear as labor
jelly, or crystallized labor, why might not they appear
in another hypothesis as a jelly of wants, as quantities
of crystallized wants?" Holy gods! Marx was not
exactly a model of what one might call classic diction,
especially so far as the plasticity, transparency, and con-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 177

tinuity of his illustrations are concerned. Marx was a
scientist. But his illustrations, while often bizarre, are
never whimsical or facetious, and they always say some-
thing profoundedly realistic. If you repeat this illustra-
tion of jelly, or paste, which, by the way, has nothing
sacramental or obligatory about it, to the first shoemaker
that you happen to meet, he will at once tell you that he
understands it, and he may refer to his calloused hands,
bent back, and perspiring brow and affirm that the boots
which he produces contain a part of himself, his mechani-
cal energy directed by his will according to a precon-
ceived plan, which his brain activity carries out while
he is engaged on his work. But so far none but wizards
have believed, or pretended to believe, that we can trans-
fer a part of ourselves to some commodity by mere
wishes, regardless of whether this commodity is produced
or not.

Psychology will not stand any trifling. I would not
undertake to say in so many words, how much of it
should enter into the assumptions of political economy.
But I am at least certain that most of the psychological
concepts which hedonists and others are chasing in
economics have an air of beiug there on purpose to blind
the unwary, a certain air of being thought out, not
actually discovered, a certain air of having been im-
ported from vulgar terminology, not critically evolved.
It is another case of repeating that the craftsman should
look to his tools. And I know furthermore that the
whole gamut of human psychology runs from wants to
labor, as it does in the ease of the particular feeling of
thirst, which is a desire to drink, which a baby does not

178 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

yet associate with the idea of water, let alone with the
movements necessary to procure it, while a provident
laborer with mature will and intellect, a will in which
experience and imagination, imitation and invention
combine, digs a well or opens up a spring. It was the
shortcoming of vulgar psychology that it attempted to
reduce this living formation to a dry skeleton, and yet
the economists of our day still show a great preference
for the same thing in their particular lucubrations. The
psychology of labor, which would be the crowning of
determinism, remains yet to be written.

What good wiU this postcript do?, some readers may
ask. Just this much: I am not the shield bearer of
Marx, I am open to every critique, I am myself critical
in everything I say, and therefore I do not forget the
sentence that to understand means to overcome. But I
am disposed to add that to overcome^ one must have
understood.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE FRENCH
EDITION

Eome, December 31, 1898.

This little booklet of mine, as the postcript also shows,
was schedtiled to appear in Paris in September of this
year. Accidental causes retarded its publication.

In the meantime Sorel has delivered himself body and
soul to the crisis of Marxism, treats of it, expounds it,
comments on it with gusto wherever he gets an oppor-
tunity, for instance in the Revue Parlementaire of
December 10, pages 597—612 (where he converts this
crisis into one of socialism) and in the Bivista Critica
del Socialismo, Rome, Number I, pages 9-21. And he
establishes and canonizes it stiU more in his preface to
Merlino's Formes et Essence du Socialisme. We are
Tiltimately threatened with a congress of thinking se-
cessionists.

There we have evidently a war of the Frond before us !

What was I to do ? Begin all over again ? Write an
anti-Sorel after I had written an avec-Sorel ? I did not
yield to the temptation. It is true that I had named
my composition of a somewhat unusual make-up a Dis-
course. But a man discourses when he feels like it, not
when he is commanded.

I merely ask the reader to look at the dates of these
letters, or these little monographs in loose style, which I
addressed to Sorel. These dates run from April 20, to

179

180 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

September 15, 1897. I was writing to that Sorel, not to
this new one. I was addressing the old Sorel, whom I
had known in the pages of Devenir Social, who had in-
troduced me to the French readers in the quality of a
Marxist, who had sent me letters full of fine observations
and interesting critical reflections. It is true, he was
full of doubts, and seemed at times impregnated with the
spirit of a frondeur, but when I wrote with a mind
intent on him, I did not think, in 1897, that he would so
shortly become the herald of a war of secession. how
glad it will make the small lights of intellectualism, or
those who need a testimonial to prove that they are not
cowards ! Sorel leaves at least a little ray of hope, for
us, when he writes : "I and some friends of mine shall
try hard to utilize the treasures of reflexion and hypothe-
ses collected by Marx in his books. This is the best way
to derive advantage from a work of genius which has
remained unfinished." (Revue Parlementaire, same
issue, page 612). Well, there are thus many auguries
for the new year, which commences tomorrow, in this
benign and pitiful work of salvage, which, by the way,
neither I nor a good many others like myself feel in
need of.

I feel no rancor, but I certainly cannot help feeling
some mortification. In offering these pages of somewhat
unconventional composition to the French reading
public, I fear that intelligent readers— and France has a
greater abundance of them than any other country— will
say to me : You are a pretty tolerable conversationalist,
but a very poor teacher. You open your didactic dia-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 181

logue with a friend like an erudite man, and now this
friend runs over to the other side !

Is it not so, Mr. Sorel ? Well, then, let us accomodate
aU-parties. This dialogue has been only a monologue. I
wish it were otherwise.

PREFACE OF G, SOREL

TO THE
ESSAYS ON THE MATERIALISTIC CONCEPTION
OF HISTORY,

By Antonio Labriola, French Translation, Paris,
Giard et Briere, 1897.

Contemporaneous socialism presents a character of
originality which has struck all the economists. It owes
this character to the fact that it is inspired by the ideas
enunciated by Karl Marx on Historical Materialism.
Wherever these ideas have deeply penetrated into the
consciousness of people, the Socialist Party is strong and
alive ; otherwise it is weak and divided into sects.

The Marxian theses have generally not been well
understood in France by the writers, who occupy them-
selves with social questions. Mr. Bourguin, professor at
the university of Lille, wrote in 1892* : " The thinkers
among our socialists do not accept the blighting doctrine
of their master, from which the idea of Eight and Justice
is so rigorously banished, without reservation. It is a
strange garment, which they wear with little ease and
which they will no doubt touch up some day in order to
fit it better to their own figure." The writer was referr-
ing to an essay published in 1887 by Mr. Rouanet, in the
Revue Socialiste, under the title : Le materialisme econ-
nomique de Marx et le socialisme francais.

•Des rapports entre Proudhon et K. Marx, page 29.

182

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOP'hY 183

Nearly all those who speak of historical materialism
know this doctrine solely through this essay of Mr.
Rouanet. This writer has occupied for a long time an im-
portant place in the advanced parties of France. He
informed his readers that he had made a profound study
of Marx and that he had devoted himself to exhaustive
researches, in order to understand Hegel. One would
naturally think him to he well informed.*

Before beginning the perusal of the exposition, which
Mr. Labriola gives in excellent, but very concise, terms
of historical materialism, the French reader should
guard himself against widely disseminated prejudices.
For this reason I think it necessary to show here, how
false and futile the great objections against the Marxian
doctrine are. We must, therefore, pause to consider the
ideas enunciated by Mr. Rouanet in 1887.

The prejudices existing among us have to a large
extent a sentimental origin. Mr. Rouanet has gone to a
lot of trouble to show that the Marxian doctrines run
counter to the French genius. "We hear this reproach
repeated every day. In what consists this antagonism?

The problem of modem development, considered from
the materialist point of view, rests upon three questions :
1) Has the proletariat acquired a clear consciousness of
its existence as an indivisible class? 2) Has it enough
strength to begin the struggle against the other classes ?
3) Is it in a position to overthrow, together with the

•*I note by the way that Mr. Rouanet had read nothing by
Marx but the "Communist Manifesto" and "Capital." Moreover,
he had but a, rather Imperfect idea of the economic theories
contained In this lastnamed work.

184 S0CJ,ALIS1I AND PHILOSOPHY

capitalist organisation, the entire system of traditional
ideologies 1 It is for sociology to reply.

If a man adopts the principles of Marx, he can say
that there is no longer any social question. He can even
say that socialism (in the ordinary and historical mean-
ing of the term), is outgrown. In fact, research then
applies no longer to what society should he, but to what
the proletariat can accomplish in the present class-
struggle.

This manner of looking at things does not suit the
French genius, at least not those who have the preten-
sion to claim that they represent it. In our country, the
progressive parties contain an appalling number of men
of genius, whose talent present society is misunderstand-
ing, .who have in their hearts an infallible oracle of
Justice, who have devoted their lives to the elaboration
of marvelous plans for insuring the happiness of human-
ity. These gentlemen do not wish to step down from
their fastidious tripods and mingle with the crowd.
They are made to lead, not to become the co-operators
in a proletarian task. They intend to defend the rights
of intelligence against those audacious ones who lack
respect for the liberal Olympus, and who do not take
sufficient account of mentality.

Add to this that these rare spirits have a naive faith
in French supremacy, in the leading role of France*,
that they have the superstition of revolutionary phrase-
ology, and that they practice with devotion the cult of

*Only one country seems to me to have the right to claim an
exceptional place in our modern civilization: Italy, the common
fatherland of free and cultured spirits.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 185

great men. They cannot forgive Marx, Bngels, and
especially Lafargue for lacking in respect for their own
revered idols.

I do not belong to those who have a great admiration
for French genius, so imderstood. Besides, I have reason
to believe that this sort of French genius is not the kind
possessed by those of my countrymen who devote them-
selves to scientific research and do not feel the need of
posing as the spiritual leaders of the people.
Vf, ; The great reproach advanced against the doctrine of
' ' Marx from a scientific point of view is that of leading
to fatalism. According to Rouanet, it is very close to
Hegelian idealism, divested of its "nebulous transcen-
dentalism;"* It has "the same fatal succession of
events, which are necessary phases of a process not en-
lightened by human will, and even a cult of force, that
sombre god of iron, who is the blind instrument of the
laws of the great Fate destined to fulfilment in spite of
everything." One might make many objections to the
idea which this French author makes for himself of the
philosophy of Hegel. But a superficial -perusal of
Capital suffices to show that Marx never thought of the
evolutionary apocal3T)se so generously attributed to' him.

Determinism assumes that changes are automatically
connected with one another, that simultaneous phenom-
ena form a compact mass having a determined structure,
that there are iron laws insuring a necessary order
between all things. Nothing of the kind is found in
Marx's doctrine. Events are considered from an em-
pirical point of view. It is their interconnection which

•Revue soclaliste, May, 1887, page 400.

186 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

results in the historical law that determines the tempo-
rary mode of their generation. The demand is no longer
that we should reedgnize in the social world a system
analogous to the astronomical. We are only asked to
recognise that the intermingling of causes produces suffi-
ciently regular and characteristic periods to permit of
their becoming objects for an intelligent understanding
of facts.

Marx gives a very good view of the multiplicity of
causes which have produced modern capitalism. Nothing
proves that these causes must appear together at a de-
termined date. Their fortuitous co-existence engenders
the transformation of industry and changes all social
relations. '//

But some insist and say that, according to Marx, all
political, moral, esthetic phenomena are determined (in
the strict meaning of the word) by economic phenomena.
What can such a formula signify ? To say that one thing
is determined by another without at the same time giving
a precise description of the way in which they join is to
utter one of those absurdities, which have made the vul-
garisers of vulgar materialism so ridiculous.

Marx is not responsible for this caricature of his
historical materialism. The fact that all sociological
manifestations, in order to be made clear, must be placed
upon their economic basis does not imply that an under-
standing of the basis obviates an understanding of the
superstructure. The connections between the economic
underpinning and the products resting upon it are very
variable and cannot be translated into any general form-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 187

ula. This cannot be called determinism, since there is
nothing to be determined.

Mr. Rouanet forms a very singular conception of the
Marxian doctrine. He assumes that the means of pro-
duction, the economic organisation, and the social rela-
tions, are beings, which succeed one another like palae-
ontological species by the mysterious road of evolution,
and that the entire history of humanity is deduced from
them by laws, which he does not know any more than I
do, and which Marx has never divulged. Historical
materialism would thus have an idealist basis, namely
the fatal succession of the forms of production! That
would certainly be a very singular conception.

A distinguished professor, Mr. Petrone*, agrees with
Mr. Rouanet in maintaining that historical materialism
fails when applied to the Christian revolution. I believe,
on the contrary, that the theories of Marx throw a
certain light upon this question, by showing the reasons
which prevent the historian from fully understanding
what took place. We cannot discuss the problem scien-
tifically, because we lack the elements necessary for clear-
ing it up. The Italian author places himself upon the
Catholic standpoint. Mr. Rouanet invents a fantastic
history. The scientists should keep still and wait until
the monuments shall have revealed to us the economic
conditions of the primitive church.

Mr. Bourguin wants to know** whether we must not

*Mr. Petrone is a free lecturer at the university of Rome. He
has written a very interesting critical report on the book of
Mr. Labriola in the "Rivista internazionale di science sociall
e discipline ausiliarle," fourth year, volume XI, pages 551-560.

**Des rapports entre Proudhon et K. Marx, page 25.

188 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

count among the active forces "the more or less de-
veloped consciousness among the laborers of being objects
of alleged exploitation. ' ' But is not the development of
class-consciousness the pivot of the social question, in
the eyes of Marx? One needs but to have a mediocre
knowledge of the works of the great socialist philosopher
to know that.

Can Marx be accused of having given too little atten-
tion to human mentality, he, who has shown the import-
ance of the least creations of inventive genius ? Nowhere
does intelligence appear in such strong relief as in
technology, whose historical role is placed in the front
rank in a striking manner, in Capital. I know very well
that the representatives of French genius have but little
esteem for machine builders, who are incapable of de-
claiming formidable cantatas on the Rights of Man from
the speaker's platform. But simple mortals believe with
Mr. Bourdeau* that the steam engine "has exerted more
influence on social organisation than all the systems of
philosophy."

Does this mean that intellectual and moral products
are without historical efficacy, as some pretend to be
the result of historical materialism? Not at all. Such
products possess the faculty of detaching themselves
from their natural cradle and assuming a mystical form,
"as though they were independent beings able to com-
municate with mankind and one another. ' '** After they
have thus freed themselves, they are liable to enter into

•Journal des Dfibats, May 1, 1896. ,

♦•Capital, French translation, page 28. Marx says this ot
commodities.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHT 189

the most diverse imaginary combinations. No great
revolution has ever taken place withoTit producing many-
insistent illusions. It is again Marx who tells us so.
But this statement goes against the grain of our
men of progress. They don't like the idea of having
ascribed to fantasy what they ascribe to reason. For to
do so, means to lack respect for all the Titans of the
present and past.

In his introduction to his translation of the selected
works of Vico, Michelet wrote : ' ' The word of the new
science is that humanity is of its own making . . . Social
science dates from the day on which this great idea was
expressed for the first time. Hitherto humanity thought
that it owed its progress to the hazards of individual
genius . . . History was a sterile spectacle, at most a
f antasmagoria. ' '

How is history made ? Bngels tells us in the follow-
ing passage: "The innumerable conflicts of individual
wiUs and individual agents in the realm of history reach
a conclusion which is on the whole analagous to that in
the realm of nature, which is without definite purpose.
The ends of the actions are intended, but the results
which follow from the actions are not intended, or in so
far as they appear to correspond with the end desired,
in their final results are quite different from the conclu-
sion wished."* This thesis is admitted by scientists
without any difficulty. But it is full of despair for the
great men whose genius is flowing over. Their plans
cannot be realised as they have conceived them ! //And

♦Feuerbach, The Roots of the Socialist Philosophy, pages
104-105.

.1..

190 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

yet these plans are so well laid, that one cannot touch
them without interfering with their efficacy and assailing
Justice, whose authorised delegates these gentlemen are.

But let us leave aside all these vulgar objections and
take up what constitutes in my eyes the vulnerable part
of the doctrine, that part which- the French critics have
not yet examined.

Many scientists are disposed to admit the value of
historical materialism as a training of the mind, and to
recognise that the Marxian theses furnish useful hints
for the historian of institutions.* But it remains to find
out what is the metaphysical basis of this theory. It
serves no end to say that this search is superfluous, that
we may follow the same method which was so successful
in psychology after the discussion of the soul had been
abandoned. But where is the metaphysician who re-
mains entirely indifferent to the metaphysical problem?
Every one has his own hypothesis. And these hypothe-
ses, often adroitly dissimulated, distinguish the various
schools. Many mistakes have been made by a hasty
application of historical materialism. Nearly all these
mistakes may be traced to agnosticism, which the authors
professed and which really concealed imperfectly elabor-
ated working hypotheses.

On the other hand, if we examine the applications
made by Marx, we find that he employed a great many
psychological principles, jwhich have not been generally
enunciated in a scientific form. To the extent that we

*Mr. Petrone admits this without any difficulty. While Mr.
Bourdeau says that the theses of Marx throw a new light on
history. (Dfibats, October 13, 1896.)

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 191

advance we will see the necessity of stepping forward
from this provisional position and cutting solid timber
for the support of historical relations.

Here, then, are two great blanks. The disciples of
Marx should make efforts to complete the work of their
master. This master seems to have feared nothing so
much as the idea of leaving behind a system of too great
rigidness and firmness. He understood that a theory is
at the end of its career, when it is completed, and that
the condition of all metaphysical science is to leave a
wide door for further development. The prudence of
Marx was extreme. He did not try to terminate a single
theory. Recent discussions show that he had not said
his last word on value and surplus-value. How blind
are, therefore, the critics who accuse the disciples of
Marx of wishing to lock up the human thought in a ring
fence built by their master !

In this work of perfection we must follow the example
set by Marx and be prudent. The time has not come for
the enunciation of the metaphysics and the definition of
the psychology of historical materialism, so long as its
basis has been studied only in a limited way.

Men of great hearts say that the spirit cannot rest
content in this state of expectation, when it is a question
of Morality and Right. Superficial critics are not slow
in denouncing the absence of ideals, without asking them-
selves whether a reasonable theory of ethics can be in-
dependent of metaphysics, and whether the latter is worth
anything without a scientific basis. One may admit the

192 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

historical and social value of moral teaching* without
having the pretension of imposing upon it rules, laws,
and postulates evolved out of the imagination. It seems
rather that by giving to ethics a basis of metaphors, in-
sufficient psychological theories, or declamations on
Nature, the effect of this teaching is considerably cur-
tailed. To bring morality down to earth, to divest it of
all fantasy, does not mean to deny it. On the contrary
it means to treat it with the respect due to the work of
reason. Is it a denial of science to leave aside the specu-
lations on the essence of things and to stick to realities?
Capital is full of appreciation for morality. It is,
therefore, rather paradoxical to reproach Marx with
having carefully avoided all consideration of Justice.
Every one has his own interpretation for this word. Mr.
Bourguin, in the above cited passage, stands on the
ancient theory of a moral sense. But this theory is out
of date. Mr. Eouanet speaks* of " a natural justice, con-
forming to the law of social development, which is the
free solidarity of the diverse parties constituting human-
ity as a whole and coming closer and closer together."
This is evidently what Marx called "Humbug of juri-
dical ideology dear to the French democrats and social-
ists."* The fact that the two above-mentioned authors

•On the great importance of morals on socialist philosophies
read the fine observations of Mr. B. Croce in his Sulla con-
cezione materialistioa della storia, published in the Atti della
Accademia Pontaniana, Vol. XXVI, 1896.

*Revue socialiste, June, 1887, page 591.

•Letter on the Gotha Program, published in Revue d'€coh-
omle politique, 1894, page 758. The German text appeared in
the Neue Zeit, ninth year. Vol. I, number 18, pages 560-575.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 193

are in agreement in imputing a certain moral character
to tM doctrine of Marx proves only that they do riot find
in Capital an expression of their personal theories on
morality, which, moreover, have no value.

It is in the name of the metaphysics of morals that
Jaures took part in this debate and proposed to reconcile
the materialist and idealist points of view. Nothing
seemed easier to him. He afSrms, first of all, that the
disciples of Marx recognise the existence of a " direction
in the economic and human movenient." He asks that
he be granted as an indisputable axiom that there is in
history not only "a necessary evolution, but an appreci-
able direction and an ideal sense." To admit these pre-
mises would be to explain history by means of idealism,
and only idealism. It would be a rejection of the
doctrine of Marx. But if that is so, how can he reconcile
them? Very simple. If we condemn all the ideas of
Marx, we proclaim the author as a great man, as great a
man as his disciples can desire.*

If we admit everything the famous orator demands,
we shall be convinced that the "word Justice has a mean-
ing even in the materialist conception of history ! ' ' This
conclusion is true, only it has a different meaning from
that of Mr. Jaures. "Humanity seeks itself," he says,
"and afSrms itself, no matter how different may be its
environment. . . It is the same sigh of suffering and
hope which comes from the mouth of the slave, the serf,
and the proletarian. It is the immortal breath of hu-

•This paradox was published in the Jeunesse socialiste, Janu-
ary, 1895, under the title of. Idealism of History. Read the
spirited reply of Mr. Lafargue in the February number.

194 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

manity, which is the soul of the thing we call Right."
Marx certainly never thought of that!

I have said enough to make it plain that historical
materialism has been almost unknown in France. The
book of Mr. Labriola brings the French readers in touch
with new regions, through which the learned Italian pro-
fessor conducts us with great ability.

The publication of this work marks a date in the
history of Socialism. It is, indeed, the first time that an
author of the Latin tongue studies in an original and
profound manner one of the philosophical foundations
on which contemporaneous socialism rests. The work of
Mr. Labriola occupies a marked place in the libraries, by
the side of the classic books of Marx and Engels. It
constitutes a methodical elucidation and development of
a theory, which the masters of new socialist thought have
never treated in a didactic manner. His book is, there-
fore, indispensable for those who wish to understand ■
proletarian ideas.

More than the works of Marx and Engels, the present
work adresses itself to the foreign public with a taste for
social problems. The historian will find in these pages
substantial and precious hints for the study of the gene-
sis and transformation of institutions.

G. SOEEL.

Paris, December 1896,

CONCERNING THE CRISIS OF MARXISM

AN ARTICLE PUBLISHED BY ANTONIO LABRIOLA IN THE
BIVISTA ITALIANA DI SOCIOLOaiA, VOLUME III, 1899.

I refer here to a boot, which is neither brief, nor easy
to read, written by Th. G. Masaryk, professor at the
Bohemian university of Prague, and published quite re-
cently. How voluminous it is may be seen at the foot of
this page*, where I give its title in fuU. I do not intend
however, to write a mere review of this book. And if it
should be said that the expression of a personal opinion
on a book requires its review, I would reply that this one
would have to assume the proportions and make-up of
an article.

My name, and the title of my article, might lead one
to infer that I was about to engage in party polemics.
The reader may rest in peace. I shall not confound the
pages of the Bivista italiana di sociologia with the
columns of a political daily.

I will merely say in passing that the great uproar
made curiously enough by the political press of Italy,
whether daily or otherwise periodical, over the alleged
death of Socialism on account of a socalled Crisis of
Marxism appears to me as one more proof of that organic

*Die philosophischen und sociologlschen Crundlagren des
Marxlsmus — Studien zur sozlalen Frage, von Th. G. Masaryk,
Professor an der bohmischen Unlversltat Prag, "Wien, C. Kone-
gen, pages XV and '600, In large octavo.

196

196 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

national vice which one might call the right to ignorance.
Not one of those grave diggers of Socialism, who jumbled
the most incompatible writers indiscriminately together
in order to get a crowd around their crisis, thought of
asking himself these simple and honest questions : May
the critique raised in other countries in matters of Marx-
ism have any direct bearing upon Italy? Had, or has,
this theory any solid footing and established spread in
our country ? And finally, has the Italian Socialist Party
sufficient strength, and enough adherents among the
masses, and does it carry within itself such development,
complex conditions and political aims as reveal the pre-
cise and clear marks of a stable and durable proletarian
organisation, so that a thorough discussion of the theory
will amount to a discussion of things rather than of
words? And, to go more to the bottom of the matter,
can any one teU whether the whole thorny path of
economic development has already been traveled, which
led to the establishment of the socalled capitalist system
in other countries, and of which Marxism is the critical
reflex?

Whoever would have asked these and similar questions,
would have come to the honest conclusion that there can-
not be any crisis of a thing. . . . which does not yet exist.

It may be, or rather it is certain, that none of these
necrologists of, Socialism knew that the phrase of a Crisis
of Marxism was coined and set in circulation by pro-
fessor Masaryk, whose lot it was (quite unknown to him,
as happens frequently to strangers in matters concern-
ing Italy) to bring to our country a new and unexpected
contribution to the fortune of words. But this is a fact.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 197

The expression— Cj-ms of Marxism— ^sb invented by
Masaryk in numbers 177 to 179 of the Zeit of Vienna, in
February 1898, and these articles of his were later on
gathered in one pamphlet* and published under the date
of March 10. And mark well, the author of this dis-
covery in literature did not have in mind to declare that
Socialism was dying, but merely that it seemed to him
he was observing a crisis within Marxism. In fact, he
concluded as follows: "I would admonish the enemies
of Socialism not to nurse any vain hopes for their own
parties on account of this crisis of Marxism, which may
rather strengthen Socialism considerably, if its leaders
will frankly criticise its fundamentals and overcome
their defects. Like every other social reform party.
Socialism has its fountain of life in the manifest imper-
fections of the present social order, in its injustice, im-
morality, and above all in the material, moral, and in-
tellectual misery of the great masses of all nations. ' '*

On those 24 pages, which were too few for the import-
ance of the subject, the data concerning the crisis— so
far as it related to the German social-democracy, and
with a few references to French and English literature —
were collected, enumerated, defined, in a rather hasty
manner. . . But what avails it to speak of the little

*Die wissenschaftliche und philosophisohe Krise innerhalb
des gegeiiwartigen Marxismus. Vienna, 1898, 24 pages.

♦Ibidem, page 24. The same statement is now amply re-
peated in the present book near its close, especially on pages
59-92. To mention another little illustration of the fortune of
a word, I observe that the crisis within Marxism has become
the crisis o f Marxism in the French translation of this work
by Bugiel, Paris, 1898, (extract from the Revue Internationale
de soclologie, July number).

198 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

work of March 10, 1898, since these 24 pages have be-
come 600 in the book of March 27, 1899, 600 mind you,
which in turn is "too much enough," as a Neapolitan
would sayj both as concerns the substance of the subject
treated and the patience of the average reader ?

Professor Masaryk is a positivist. This term has in
Italy an exceedingly wide and elastic meaning, but for
'him, as a professed philosopher, it means in so many
words that he is standing on the line which leads from
Comte to Spencer. . .or to Masaryk himself. I am not
in a position to accord to him all the admiration which
is, perhaps, due to him. For he has the habit of writing
in Bohemian, which is rather inconvenient for me.
Hitherto I had not read anything by him except his
Concrete Logic in its German translation. Nor would I
split hairs about the subtile meaning of his expressions,
because this book has been translated by Mr. Kalandra
into a rather bureaucratic German. The work as a
whole, as the author himself states in his preface, must
not be considered under the aspect of composition and
style. It is an ultra-academic production, with the
customary division into introduction and sections. There
are five of the latter, followed by a recapitulation, and
they are subdivided into chapters, with subheadings of
A, B, C, and so on, down to a division of the subdivisions
into 162 paragraphs, with various bibliographies in a
loose and in a concentrated order, and with a truly won-
derful index, which makes you think of a lot of things
which you don't find in the book on turning to it, and
with the inevitable table of contents. In short, it is a
book of comprehensive and instructive lessons, poised in

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 199

tone, with occasional touches of lightness, and- it is edited
after the model of an encyclopedia. However, not all
lessons can be referred to the same date. "While this
book, originally written in the Bohemian language and
announced in the small booklet of the preceding year
which may take its place for those who don't care to
read 600 pages, was being printed in the German lang-
uage, the now famous book of Bernstein (quoted in a
footnote on page 590 of Masaryk's book) appeared, and
the author felt the need of accomodating his friends with
it in another place.*

The achievement of Masaryk is truly in a class by
itself. He is not a socialist, he has an extensive know-
ledge of socialist literature, he is not a professional ad-
versary of Socialism, he judges it from on high, in the
name of Science. He was a member of the Reichsrath of
Cisleithania, but is at the same time a nationalist and
progressist, which, so far as I know, is never found as
a combination in Young Czechs. At present, it seems to
me, he is keeping himself aloof from politics. He pub-
lishes a review which is somewhat similar to our Nuova
Antologia. He is a scientist by profession, that is, a
great reader and accurate reporter of what he reads, to
the point of the minute detail of the smallest particle.
And this is the first and principal defect of his book.
The book discusses an infinite number of things, but it
never gets to the real point. It is as though the author's
view were obstructed by printed matter and obscured by

*This was done in numbers 239 and 240, of April 20, and May
6, of the Vienna Zeit. He had done the same in October of last
year with the message of Bernstein to the national con-
vention at Stuttgart.

200 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the shadows of the writers, through whom he wends his
way with so much obsequiousness for all, like a man
whose eyes have lost all sense of perspective.

Isn't it the principal duty of one, who undertakes to
study the fundamentals of Marxism, to be in a position
to answer the following question on the strength of a
study of actual conditions: "Do you, or don't you, be-
lieve in the possibility of a transformation of the so-
cieties of the most advanced countries, which would do
away with the causes and eif ects of class-struggles ? " In
view of this general problem the question of the mode of
transition into that desired or foreseen future society
is a matter of secondary importance. For that mode of
transition is not subject to our judgment and assuredly
does not depend on our definitions. So far as this
general proposition is concerned, it is, I will not say a
matter of indifference, but certainly of subordinate
value, to know what part of the thought and opinions
(many confound these two, unfortunately) of Marx and
of his direct followers, and interpreters agree, or does
not agree, with the present and future conditions of the
proletarian movement. It is not necessary that a man
should be a passionate partisan of historical materialism
in order to understand that theories have a value as
theories, that is, in so far as they throw light upon a cer-
tain order of facts, but that as mere theories they are
not the cause of anything.

But Mr. Masaryk is also a doctrinaire, that is, a be-
liever in the power of ideas, in other words, an academic
thinker, for whom everything consists in a struggle for
the general world conception. We need not be surprised,

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 201

then, that he rejects with sovereign contempt the expres-
sion moss instinct. This critique, which derives frojn
Science all its assumption of an impartial judgment of
the practical struggles of life, and which ignores the
guidance of thought by the natural course of history, is
and remains essentially fallacious, because it keeps turn-
ing around Marxism, without ever touching its nerve,
which is the general conception of the historical develop-
ment from the point of view of the proletarian revolu-
tion.

In stopping to define Masaryk's particular achieve-
ment, I think I will pay him with Italian courtesy for
his ignorance of my writings bearing upon his argument.
If he had ever read them, he would, perhaps, see that
one can even nowadays be an advocate of historical
materialism, making allowance, of course, for the new
historical and social experiences made in the meantime
and with such a revision of concepts as follows natur-
ally in the development of thought. And that one can
be so without descending to a controversy dealing with
minute points and coming to blows with the party press,
and without proclaiming one's self as a discoverer or
author of a crisis of Marxism. Theories which are in a
process of development and progress do not lend them-
selves to erudite and philological treatment, such as may
be accorded to past forms of thought, and to the things
transmitted to us by tradition and called antique. But
the intellectual temperaments of men differ so much
from one another! Some — and these are few— present
the public with the results of their own work and do not
feel obliged to append to it an intimate history of their

202 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

readings down to a portrait of the pen used hj them.
Others— and these are the majority— feel the pressing
need of putting the whole fruit of their reading into
print. They are fastidious guardians of their notes and
will not let the least part of their labors get lost, be it
for the present or the future. Professor Masaryk, who
stretches the discussion of some momentary proposition
over. 600 pages, is one of these. The proposition is
simply this : What can an outsider make of Marxism at
present, seeing that it is being discussed within the
party ? Professor Masaryk, who has read so much, can-
not help considering also Marxism according to the sacra-
mental formulas of philosophy, religion, ethics, politics,
and so on to infinity. And the curious part of it is that
he, who has so much deferen'ce for the bureaucracy of
the universities and for the pigeon holes of scientific
fetishism, declares finally that Marxism is a syncretic
system (incidentally all through his book, and explicitly
on page 587) ! It had seemed to me that this theory was
'just exactly the reverse of syncretic, and rather so pro-
nouncedly unitarian that it tends not only to overcome
the doctrinaire antagonism between science and philos-
ophy, but also the more obvious one between theory and
practice. But Mr. Masaryk is what he is. So let us
follow him through his pigeon holes.

He gladly leaves to others the pastime of occupying
themselves with Socialism as a tendency to legal reforms,
after the manner of A. Menger. He declares that he
does not interfere directly in questions of economics (in
which, as a matter of fact, he seems to be lame on both
feet.) He confines himself to discussing above all the

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 203

philosophy of Marx, which exists even though it has not
been expounded in a special work written for that pur-
pose. And he studies on 600 pages the crisis so far as it
is strictly "scientific and philosophical." (Page 5.) Do
not expect, therefore, that our author should give you a
concrete examination of actual conditions in the econ-
omic world from first hand study, nor a practical and
comprehensive manual of social legislation. Whether the
proletarianization of the masses continues or not,
whether Marx's theory of value is exact or not, these and
other related questions, while of the greatest importance,
do not interest him as a philosopher. (Page 4.) The
practical result of his studies is merely to advise the
socialists to stick to the program of Engels in 1895, that
is, to parliamentarian tactics. This is what they are
actually doing all over the world, and, in my humble
opinion, for the simple reason that they cannot do any-
thing else without proving themselves either insane or
senseless. However, Masaryk re-enforces his advice with
the admonition that the socialists should also drop the
Marxian ideologies! Once more, then, it is not the
natural course of the political changes of civilized
Europe which has induced the socialists to change their
tactics (the author could not tell us how long the present
tactics will, or may, last), but it is the ideas which
change and must change. Everything is merged in the
struggle for the Weltanschauung (world conception) —
see especially pages 586 to 592 — as is natural in a writer
who holds so closely to the sacramental concepts of scien-
tific classification (Page 4) and to the super-eminent
position of philosophy.

204 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

The Philistine, in his professorial subspecies, reveals
himself here fully in his true nature. To be intimately-
familiar with socialist literature, and yet ignore the in-
nermost soul and meaning of Socialism ! If this meaning
is once grasped, it is a matter of course that it changes
scientific orientation completely, and changes also the
position of science in the economy of our interests. But
Masaryk never gets so far, because he would have to
leave the confines of definitions in order to do that. For
this reason his book, while full of conscientious informa-
tion and free from professional contempt of Socialism,
amounts in intent and effect to an enormous plea of Posi-
tivism against Marxism !

Two observations occur to me at this point. The fore-
going statement will sound strange to many in Italy,
where it is customary to designate anything and every-
thing by the term Positivism. On the other hand, I have
said frequently that that mode of conceiving of life and
the world which is understood by the name of historical
materialism, has not come to perfection in the writings
of Marx and Engels and their immediate followers. And
I declare now more pointedly that the development of
this theory proceeds still slowly, and will perhaps pro-
ceed at the same gait for a good while.

But such books as Masaryk 's serve no good purpose.
It is indeed an accumulation of objections in the name
of Positivism, but not in the name of an authentic and
direct revision of the problems of historical science, not
in the name of actual political questions. The socalled
crisis is not made the object of publicist examination, nor
of sociological study, but is rather a blank space, or a

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 205

pause, in which the author proceeds to deposit, or recite,
his philosophical protests.

One essay, which is neither useless nor devoid of inter-
est, is devoted to the first formation of the thought of
Marx (pages 17—89). But the result is rather scant.
"Marx ultimately found in the continuous mutation of
the social structure the historical reason of Communism,
a something which imposes its sway of its own necessity.
— According to Marx, philosophy is the natural copy of
the world process.— Communism follows from history
itself. — The materialism of Marx is a historical material-
ism.— " Such propositions as these, which reproduce at
one stroke of the pen the fundamental thought of the
author in question, should induce our critic, it seems to
me, to examine the fundamentals of these conceptions,
in order to overthrow them, if he can. And what does
Mr. Masaryk do instead? A few lines further along he
writes: "His philosophy, and that of Engels, bear the
imprint of eclecticism." And thereupon he treats us
under letter D of heading II to a Russian salad of con-
troversial opinions of Bax, K. Schmidt, Stern, Bernstein,
Pleohanoff, Mehring, so far as they have discussed the
question whether this philosophy, from a Marxist point
of view, is, or is not, reconcilable with a return to Kant,
Spinoza, or others. And he never remembers the poet
who was present at the foundation of the university of
Prague, in order to exclaim with him :

Poor and nude goest thou, philosophy !

Somewhat disconnected is the treatment accorded by
the author to historical materialism (pages 92 — 168). He
speaks first of the different definitions and their clash.

206 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

and comes finally to a critique founded on that old bore,
the doctrine of factors, which he hides more or less under
a rather doubtful and uncertain sociological and psycho-
logical phraseology. Lastly, the idea of an objectively
unitarian conception of history is repugnant to our
author, and it frequently happens that he confounds the
explanation of historical mass effects primarily by way
of changes in the economic foundation with the curt and
crude explanation of some particular historical fact out
of particular and concrete economic conditions. "We need
not wonder then when we see that he considers Marx as
a sort of deteriorated Comte, who becomes an uncon-
scious follower of Schopenhauer and accepts the primacy
of the will, which doctrine, however, contradicts the
sacred trinity of intellect, feeling, and will. Likely
enough poor Marx did not know that man had not only
an intellect, but also a liver, which is so much more
surprising as he was himself suffering from liver trouble !
Perhaps this is a good reason why he did not see that
surplus-value is an eminently ethical concept !

A university professor who treats his subject matter as
he does his profession, may easily be tempted to subject
a certain author to the test of all the various doctrines
which he, as a critic, is in the habit of studying and
handling. And then it happens through a strange illu-
sion of the erudite, that the terms of comparison, which
are in the subjective mind of the critic, become surrepti-
tiously terms of actual derivation. This happened also
to Masaryk. Here we find him, just when he is right in
the midst of his attempted comparisons, contradicting
himself by the sententious statement (page 166) i "In

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 207

fact, Marx molded into a formula something which was
in the air, as the saying is, and for this reason I have
not attributed much weight to particular influences on
his mental development." Therefore, I would say, start
all over again and try the opposite way. In the author
whom you criticise this opposite process took place, for
he rose from a critique of economy and from the fact of
the class struggle to a new conception of history- and by
the same way further to a new orientation on the general
problems of cognition (and, mind you, not by a modi-
fication of the thing which is technically called historical
research). But you do violence to the facts. You turn
them upside down and you follow a course which is not
the one chosen by the object of your critique. But of
course, you, a professional philosopher, descend from the
altitude of definitions to the particular thing called
historical materialism. And with all due obsequiousness
to red tape, you thus come to the theory of the class-
struggle as one comes to a corollary in logic.

In this case, likewise, a faithfulness to material exposi-
tion renders all the more conspicuous the incapacity for
an intimate and vivid understanding. We meet here and
there with a few useful remarks concerning the insuffi-
cient precision of such terms as bourgeoisie, proletariat,
etc., and more valuable ones concerning the impossibili-
ty of reducing all of present society to those famous two
classes, seeing that it is of a more complex and different-
iated composition. In spite of all this he shows a singu-
lar inaptitude for grasping so simple an idea as the
following: Seeing that social life is so intricate, the
intentions of some individual may all be erroneous. This

208 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

fact induces our author to say that Marxism reduces
individual consciousness down to a pure illusion. It
goes against his grain to believe that economic laws
should be subject to a natural process of development.
"Well, then, let him prove that the succession of histori-
cal events can be changed by arbitrary acts. After
claiming a spontaneousness (what is that?) of the forces
which give an impulse to history, and proclaiming the_
aristocracy of the philosophical spirit, the author teUs
us that Marxian determinism is identical with fatalism,
and then he confesses (page 234) : "I explain the world
and history theistically. " Thank God!

Now we come at last to the main question, that is, the
explanation of the capitalistic world (pages 235-313)
and the critique of Communism and the development of
civilization (pages 313—386). ,This is the essential
point for socialists, and they cannot be combatted on
any other ground. But the author descended from the
heights, and so let it be. I cannot deny — to begin with
his conclusions— that there is some justification in his
remarks about our excessive primitiveness and simplici-
ty, especially as concerns the attempt of Engels to out-
line in brief the main phases of the history of civiliza-
tion. The origin of the state, or of class society, by
means of dominion and authority, assuming the presence
of private property and the monogamic family, has var-
ious modes of development in particular and concrete
historical cases, and no facile explanation will hold good
in the attempt to make too simple diagrams plausible.
It may happen that socialists will ordinarily, in every-
day argument, see the intricacies of history in too simple

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 209

a light and reduce them too much in size. This leads
them to smooth the intricacies of present society too
much into the same likeness, in an arbitrary manner. It
is also certain that it will not do to refer continually to
the negation of the negation, for this is not an instru-
ment of research, but only a comprehensive formula,
valid, indeed, but post factum. It is furthermore cer-
tain that Communism, that is, a more or less remote
approach of present society to a new form of production,
wiU not be the mental fruit of subjective dialectics. For
this reason I believe— to be courteous in the use of arms
against my adversaries— that there is but one sole mode
of seriously combatting Socialism, and that is to prove
that the capitalist system, for the present at least, has
enough adaptability to reduce, for an indefinite time,
all proletarian movements at bottom to meteoric agita-
tion, without ever resulting in an ascending process,
which will finally eliminate class rule with wage slavery.
This is the gist of the critical efforts of such schools as
that of Brentano and his followers. But this does not
seem to be the kind of bread that is suitable for the teeth
of Mr. Masaryk, who reveals all his inaptitude for grasp-
ing the economic connection of his^ subject matter, es-
pecially in the chapter which he devotes to a criticism
of surplus-value. (Pages 250—313.)

After wending his way through a mass of references
concerning the vexatious question of the alleged funda-
mental difference between the first and third volumes of
Capital, Masaryk repudiates the theory of surplus-
value as inexact, and then he affirms that Marx could not
take his departure from the concept of utility, because

210 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

his extreme objectivity prevented him from taking psy-
chological considerations into account ! Then he proceeds
to give his own opinion as to the position which political
economy should occupy among the sciences, assuming it
to be dependent on the premises of general sociology.
He rejects the idea that political economy, is a historical
science and re-affirms his belief in a pretended science of
economics which, without being confounded with ethics,
shall embrace the whole man, and not only man as a
worker. He advances some sophistry on the impossibili-
ty of finding a measure of labor, so fay as it, in its
turn, is to serve as a measure of value, and considers
surplus-value as a mental concept derived from the
hypothesis of two classes engaged in a mutual struggle.
By means of many subterfuges he writes an apology of
the capitalist so far as he is enterprising, that is, a
worker and manager. And while he fulminates against
the parasitic class and against dishonest commerce, he
demands ethics which shall teach to each his duty and
place. He is kind enough to admit that Marx discovered
the importance of small laborers, even though he is said
to have fallen into such little errors as Masaryk notes,
for instance, the reduction of complex labor to simple
labor, and above all the belief in a class-struggle, when
there is really nothing but a struggle between individ-
uals.

But if it is so easy to reduce historical materialism to
powder, if class-struggles as a dynamic principle of his-
tory are but an erroneous generalisa.tion of ill-understood
facts, if the expectations of Communism are practically
Utopian, if the theories of Capital are so obviously false,

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 211

and if all the fundaments of Marxism have now been
destroyed, why does Masaryk take the pains to write
another two hundred pages on rights, ethics, religion,
and so forth, that is, on the systems which are called
ideological? For my part, I should have been satisfied
with the statements made, for instance, on pages 509—
519, which fill a sort of blank intervening between the
net work of paragraphs. There he tries to come to some
final summing up, but through defects in his style there
is too little concentration of thought and the summary
lacks conciseness. This attempted summary gives a sort
of a survey of the characteristics of Marxism and there-
by brings the thesis of the author into a stronger relief.
Marx— this is the gist of this summary— marks the
extreme limit of the reaction against subjectivism, so
far as he regards nature as the primary and conscious-
ness as the resulting thing. His is therefore an absolute
positive, objectivism. For him history is the antecedent
and the individual the consequent. Hence his concep-
tion amounts to an absolute negation of individualism.
The question of understanding is purely a practical one.
Between the nature of man and human history there is
a perfect accord. There is no other source of human
consciousness outside of the one offered by history. Man
consists entirely of what man makes. Hence the econ-
omic foundation of all the rest. Hence labor as a lead-
ing thread of history. Hence the conviction that the
various social forms are but different forms of organiza-
tion of labor. Hence the point of view of Socialism, no
longer as a mere aspiration or expectation. Hence the
conception of Communism, not as a simple diagram of

212 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

economic relations, but as a new consciousness exceeding
the limits of all present illusions and as an application
of positive humanitarianism. But this extreme object-
ivism is now breaking up by a return to Kant, that is,
to criticism. Marx's work was incomplete. He could
not overcome Hegel, he found no adequate expression
for his tendencies, he relapsed into the romanticism of
Rousseau, he tried in vain to extricate himself from
Ricardo and Smith, whom he attempted to criticise, and
he remained the author of an incomplete system. He
personifies, as it were, a philosophical tragedy. He
pressed old ideas into the service of new ideals, he could
not find any other incentive for revolutionary work but
an impulse toward hedonism, and therefore he remained
aristocratic and absolutistic in his revolutionary passion.

So far Masaryk's characteristic. I leave it to some
one with a faculty of adequate expression to give color
to this outline. It certainly is calculated to call our
attention to the great tragedy of labor, which runs
through all history.* But all this leaves our author, un-
moved in his academic pedantry. He does not oppose
one conception to another in his rapid survey of a new
interpretation of human destinies, but merely objects
to it in the name "of the mission of our time to find a
new synthesis of the sciences" (page 513). Then he
calls in once more Hume and Kant, and asks the ques-
tion: What is truth? And then follows a discussion
of the new neo-ethics, which must descend to give us a
scientific critique of society. The new philosophy must
solve the problem of religion, which Marx believed to

*See letter IX of Socialism and Philosophy.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 213

have overcome, calling it a form of illusion. Pessimism
is the dominant note of our time. Schopenhauer ap-
proached the truth somewhat by making of the will the
root of the world. Marx was a pendant to him with his
unilateral theory of labor. Marxism has the shortcom-
ing of having remained negative. "Capital is but the
economic transcript of Mephistopheles by Faust," (so
he says on page 516, and if you don't believe me, go and
see for yourselves!). And finally we learn— if I have
understood him right— that the crisis consists essential-
ly in a return to Kant and a leaning of the revolution-
ary spirit toward parliamentarianism. This, then, marks
the beginning of the Masaryk epoch in the world's
history.

Kant and the parliament, so let it be! But which
Kant? Does he mean the Kant of the most private of
private philistine lives in Konigsberg? Or does he mean
the revolutionary author of subversive writings, who
seemed to Heine like one of the heroes of the Great
Revolution ? And which parliament of the ordinary and
customary make-up is destined to transform history?
Well, then, let us say Kant and the Convention. But
the Convention followed after the revolution, that is,
after the downfall of an entire social system, the ruin
of a whole political order, the unchaining of all class pas-
sions. . .and that will do. Mr. Masaryk, as a professional
academic sociologist, has the right to ignore that living,
agitated, impulsive, passionate history, which pleases
those other human beings who have a sympathetic feel-
ing for human realities. He can, therefore, rest com-
fortably in the persuasion that the period of revolutions

214 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

is gone by for ever, and that we have definitely entered
the period of slow evolution, the idyl of quiet and
resigned reason.

Still, let us turn to his pigeon holes.

The course on the theory of the state and of law
(pages 387—426) combats principally the point of view,
according to which this or that is a secondary or derived
form as compared to society in general. The state exists
from the very beginning of evolution, and it will always
exist because reason and morality approve of it (page
405) ; and man, "by his natural disposition, does not
only like to command, but also to be commanded and to
obey willingly." Natural inequalities justify hierarchy
(page 406). And that settles it! But if that is true,
why take such pains to demonstrate that law is not to
be derived from economic conditions? "Why waste time
in combating the equalitarian theories of Engels? To
what end does he appeal to the awesome authority of
Bernstein (page 409), who is said to have restored the
state to honor (imagine, in an article in the Neue
Zeit!), declaring that it is a thing which the socialists
no longer wish to abolish, but only to reform? It is
easy enough for him to find himself in accord with the
everyday mind, which does not hesitate to admit, just
like Mr. Masaryk, that there are just inequalities, and
among them some unjust ones. I wish he would tell us
his measure of what is just !

I pass over the chapter entitled Nationality and Inter-
nationality (pages 426-565), in which the author, aside
from exhibiting his indignation over the Slavophobia of
Marx, makes some useful observations concerning those

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 215

obstacles to internationalism which arise naturally from
peculiarities of the national mind, and I stop a minute
to consider the remarkable paradoxes which he pro-
nounces in regard to religion (pages 455—481). Here
he reveals himself as a true decadent. Catholicism and
Protestantism are for him still the fundamental facts
of life and have a preponderating influence on the des-
tinies of the world! We are all either the one or the
other. Indeed, all modern philosophy is protestant, and
there is no catholic philosophy unless it be by default
(and what about your Comte?). Marx contains an ele-
ment of Catholicism, not only because he adopted
French Socialism, which is Catholic and repugnant to
the Protestant mind, but because he was authoritative,
an enemy of individuality, an internationalist, and a
champion of absolute objectivism (page 476). Just as
the French revolution was largely a religious movement,
so aU contemporaneous Socialism carries within itself a
religious element. Here and there he approaches the
idea that Catholicism and Protestantism supplement one
another. And likely enough the author thinks that the
religion of the future is being prepared by Socialism,
seeing that "faith is the highest objectivism of normal
man, and for this very fact social. . . But the objectiv-
ism of Marx is too bilious." (Page 480.)

If religion is perennial, if the state is immortal, if law
is natural, it remains to be seen whether ethics (pages
482—500) must not be super-eternal. The author claims
for moral consciousness the privilege of an indisputable
and first-hand fact. I need not stop to declare that one
ijeed not be a historical materialist, nor even a simple

216 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

materialist, in order to assign to such an infantile
opinion a place among the fairy tales. And for this
reason I thank the author for his quotation of magazine
articles, in which a Bernstein, a Schmidt, and socialists
like them, are said to have advanced ethical reasons
against Marx's indifference to morality (page 497) .

On pages 500—508 we find the shortcomings of Social-
ism in the matter of art.

All these reasons as well the statements of the author
in section V concerning the practical politics of Social-
ism, which are treated under two heads, one of them
entitled Revolution and Reform, the other Marxism and
Parliamentarianism, make us acquainted with a doctrin-
aire handiwork of the finest verbalistic kind. That So-
cialism has developed during' these last fifty years from
a sect into a party is well enough known. That im-
perative and categorical Communism as conceived at one
time has become Social-Democracy, is likewise known.
That Socialist parties are at present engaged in a
varied and differentiated practical work, is not only
a historical fact, but also a making of history on their
part. That in all these things mistakes are made and
practical uncertainties encountered, is inevitable for
human beings. But it is also true that, in order to
understand these things, one must live among them and
study them with the eye and intellect of the historical
observer.

And what does Mr. Masaryk do ? He sees nothing but
divisions into categories. And so he comes to the idea
of a transition from a systematical revolutionism to a
negation of the possibility of any revolution, from

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 217

romanticism to experience, from revolutionary aristocra-
cy to democratic ethics, from a categorical imperative
to empirical methods, from absolute objectivism to self-
critique, from Titanic conceptions to I don't ]mow what,
but we know only that "Faust-Marx becomes a voter"
(page 562). You fortunate socialist voters, who com-
plete the work of Goethe!

And then look at the specious method of the author.
He assumes that the personality of Marx (whose biogra-
phy he claims not to know for some reason, on page 517)
is indefinitely prolonged, as it were, throughout all the
actions and the expressions of the socialist parties and
socialist press, and he places the words and deeds of
all others to the account of the Marxism of Marx, as
though they were his own alterations and revisions. But
it seems that the Nemesis overtook him, because he
wanted to be too much at one time, this Marx, namely
a German philosopher and a Latin revolutionist, a Pro-
testant and a Catholic,— and the revenge of Protestant-
ism overtook him (page 566), so that we have here the
real device of the crisis, the plain meaning of the new
Ninth Thermidor of Maximilian Carl Robespierre Marx.

It is not worth my while to follow the author in his
ramblings through the whole socialist press and party
documents in his attempt to rake together the proofs for
the dissolution of Marxism by the work of the Marxists
themselves, who are a sort of prolongued Marx. His
thesis is that Socialism becomes constitutional. Every-
thing is good enough to prove this thesis, even a call
upon the testimony of Enrico Ferri, who is supposed to
have said, I really don't know where, that a republic is

218 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

in the private interest of the bourgeois parties. There-
fore away with the republic ! And this is the hope of
the author: "That Socialism will lose the acute marks of
atheism, materialism, and revolutionism, and develop
ultimately into a true democracy, which shall acquire
the proportions of a universal conception of life and the
world, a politics sub specie ceternitatis," with an outlook
upon eternity (page 858). So far as I am concerned, I
must confess that I don't understand that.

I have read the 600 pages of Mr. Masaryk with im-
usual care and patience, considering that the nature of
my occupations prevents me from perusing one and the
same book all in one sitting. I had a great curiosity to
see it as soon as it was announced. So much had been
said and gossiped about a crisis of Marxism by such a
large number of persons of mediocre and little culture,
which, besides, was almost always incongruous, that 1
thought I might learn a good deal from the masterpiece
of the author of the new phrase in social science. I
have been thoroughly disillusioned by the things which 1
have mentioned above.

Mr. Masaryk assuredly has nothing in common with
the various kinds of professional ignoran6e and auda-
cious assertiveness, which have produced so many de-
finitive criticisms of Socialism in so short a time in our
happy country, where all sorts of moral and intellectual
anarchism are in flower. The author with whom I have
been occupied shares nothing with the socalled crisis of
Marxism in Italy but the outward label, and this label
has reached us without a doubt by way of the French
press.

SOCIALISM AlTO PHILOSOPHY 219

The honest and modest intention of Masaryk was
simply to preach the funeral service over Marxism in the
name of another philosophy. He collected the material
for his critique in patiently and minutely elaborated
notes. It is clear from his whole context, and from the
equanimity of his tone throughout the work, in what
name and for what purpose he wrote this critique. The
social question is one fact, Socialism is another fact, So-
cialism and Marxism are one (the author repeats this
several times, and it seems to me he makes a great mis-
take), but the social problem must be solved in a differ-
ent way than the one expected by Marxian Socialism.
Therefore let us retouch, revise, and overturn the Welt-
anschauung, on which Marxism is based, and since the
Marxists themselves are just discussing this question, let
us step between them in this crisis as an arbiter.

What Masaryk personally wants in practice, we shall
probably find out better some other time. And I confess
that I am not consumed by a desire to know it. But the
perusal of his book has made me think of a whole
century of the history of thought.

Positivism has from its beginning walked at the heels
of Socialism. So far as the ideas are concerned, the two
things were bom about the same time in the vague mind
of the genius Saint-Simon. They were in a way the
reverse supplements of the principles of the Revolution.
The antagonism between these two things developed in
the varicolored following of Saint-Simon. And at a
certain point Comte became the representative of the
reaction (the aristocratic one, as Masaryk would say),
which assigns to men their position and destination

220 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

according to the fixed diagram of the system, in the
name of classifying and omniscient science. To the
extent that Socialism became the consciousness of the
class-struggle within the orbit of capitalist production;
and to the extent that sociology, often badly tried,
rallied around historical materialism. Positivism, the
infidel heir of the spirit of the revolution, retired into
the supereminent pride of scientific classification, which
deprecates the materialist conception of science itself,
according to which it would be a changeable thing
subject to the transformation of natural conditions, in
other words, subject to labor. Masaryk is too modest
a man to- imitate the scientific infallibility of Comte, but
he is enough professor to cling to the idea that the Welt-
anschauung is something above the social question of the
humble laborers. Turn it whichever way you want to,
there is always something of a priest in a professor. He
creates the God whom he adores, whether it is a fetish
or a sacred host.

And now we may say that we understand.

I might feel tempted to quote a few passages from my
writings, which would show clearly the distinction be-
tween criticism and a crisis. But it seems to me that
I have gone far enough.

Since politics cannot be anything else but a practical
and working interpretation of a certain historical mo-
ment, Socialism is today confronted— generally speak-
ing, and without taking into account local differences of
the various countries— by the following difficult and in-
tricate problem : It must beware of losing itself in vain
attempts at a romantic reproduction of traditional revo-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 221

lutionism (or, as Masaryk would say, it must flee from
ideology), and yet it must- take care at the same time
not to fall into an acquiescent and willing attitude which
would cause its disappearance in the elastic mechanism
of the bourgeois world by means of compromise. Some
people nurse the desire, the expectation, the hope, of
such an acquiescence of Socialism, and these apologists
of the present order of society have attributed great
weight to the open literary controversies within the
party, and to the modest book of Bernstein, which was
raised at one stroke to the honor of a historical work.*
This fact characterizes and condemns this book as well
as so many similar expressions. But all this has nothing
to do with Masaryk. Masaryk, as a professor in the
exercise of his profession, has expounded philology by
means of type.

Antonio Labeiola.
Rome, June 18, 1899.

•With reference to the book of Bernstein see my article In
Le Mouvement Soclaliste, May 1899.

ANTONIO LABRIOLA AND JOSEPH DIETZGEN

A Comparison of Historical Materialism and Monist
Materialism.

"Study historical materialism?" exclaimed a newly
converted friend of mine in surprise. "Why, I think I
know all about it. I have read Marx's introduction to
his Critique of Political Economy and Engels* introduc-
tion to his Socialism, Utopian and Scientific. What else
is there to study about it? It's as simple as can be.
Material conditions shape human thought and action.
There you have it in a nutshell. Isn't that enough?"

My friend is not the only socialist who believes he can
meet all eventualities with his historical materialism in a
nutshell. The overwhelming majority of socialists man-
age to get along on such homoeopathic doses of historical
materialism. Indeed, if we want to be honest about it,
we must admit that there is scarcely one among us who
has so fully assimilated historical materialism and its
most obvious conclusions that they have become natural
parts of his conscious being, things to be lived in daily
thought and practice.

Every debate shows that. Slight differences of opinion
on tactical questions, due to different individual develop-
ment and changes in present environment, are magnified
into great scientific controversies, or even pushed to the
extreme of personal enmities. Psychological changes,

222

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 223

sucli as frequently occur in our quieklived time, whicli
gives us little leisure to digest new ideas, are condemned
offhand as recantations of sacred pledges, without ana-
lysing to what extent alterations in the physical struct-
ure or social environment of such comrades may have
caused the change of mind. The same men pronounce
in the same breath moral sentence upon others without a
careful investigation of facts, deliver themselves of the
academic pronuneiamento that historical materialism
implies no moral condemnation of individuals or classes
for acting in accord with their historical necessities, and
censure others flatly for applying the scientific standards
of proletarian ethics to historical research. Tactical
groupings produced by the natural development of men
and things in different localities and times, instead of
being analysed and understood, become so many warring
camps and end in factional splits, without the slightest
attempt to ascertain whether a dialectic reconcilation
and co-operation is possible for them. Distinctions of a
merely formal nature, such as that between scientific
argument and appeal to sentiment, instead of being re-
cognised as justified, each in its own place, are forcibly
separated by yawning and impassable chasms.

In short, many facts give abundant evidence that
historical materialism and its direct conclusions have
barely penetrated the surface of our consciousness.

I advised my friend to spend a little time studying
Labriola and Dietzgen. And now I repeat this advice
for the benefit of a large circle of comrades. And, let
me add, don't study these two writers merely for the
sake of intellectual sport. Try to let their words "soak

224 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

in." Make a persistent effort to transform the blossom-
ing understanding, which comes after reading, into prac-
tical fruit. Turn your book wisdom into wise deeds.

Antonio Labriola and Joseph Dietzgen, each in his
own way, have made a valuable contribution to the in-
dependent thought life of the revolutionary proletariat.
If you want to know how much that simple formulation
of historical materialism by Marx in his introduction to
the Critique of Political Economy implies, and how
much it can accomplish by itself, read Labriola. If you
want to know where it falls short, and why it does so,
read Dietzgen.

Labriola, a methodical academic thinker, grown up ia
a philosophical and literary atmosphere, has the one in-
dispensable gift of the university lecturer, namely that
of pointing out all the various aspects of his subject in
a tentative manner and stimulating his pupils to analyse
each point for themselves, in order to develop their own
conclusions about it independently. He addresses him-
self to trained thinkers. Therefore he never gives them
more than just the suggestions required to point the way
for them, never exhausts his subject fully, and does so
intentionally in order to impress his pupils with the
fact that he is himself still in process of constant devel-
opment, and that he cannot say all he knows, because
he is still discovering new points of view from which his
. subject must be analysed. This is no doubt the correct
method of teaching for university lecturers. But in
order to reach the great mass of proletarians, for whom
his studies are so valuable, Labriola must be popularized.
At present he reaches the masses only indirectly through

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 225

a little band of students, who go to his works for in-
formation. These students are lavishly rewarded for
their confidence in him, and their influence on the devel-
opment of their less trained comrades is of incalculable
benefit for the Socialist movement.

Joseph Dietzgen, the selftaught man of the people,
speaks their simple language. He addresses himself
directly to his proletarian comrades of all shades. He
understands their mental capacities. He knows that he
cannot teach them more than one simple proposition at
one time. But he also knows that proletarian brains,
however untaught, are capable of grasping the most
diflcult problem, provided it is presented in a way that
is adapted to the proletarian experience. Therefore
Dietzgen avoids all academic by-work. He handles his
subject without gloves and says all he knows about it.
When he gets through, he has made his point perfectly
plain. This is precisely what his pupils want, for they
are not used to developing any conclusions themselves.
But Dietzgen knows how to develop this faculty in them.
For his subject is the self -investigation of the faculty of
thought. A proletarian who has grasped this is equipped
to undertake the analysis of any problem, which histori-
cal materialism may present, is aware that there is in-
finite room for self-development, within the natural limits
of historical necessities.

Both Dietzgen and Labriola thus produce the same
effect by different methods applied to different classes af
students. Each impresses his pupils with the fact that
things are in constant flow, and that we must move with
them to the end of our days. We must keep on learning.

226 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Joseph Dietzgen was not so much a follower, as a
collaborator of Marx and Bngels. He cut his own way
through the jungle of philosophical thought. And step-
ping out into the clearing which he had made for him-
self, he met the two founders of scientific Socialism, and
all three shook hands and divided the work between
them. Marx and Engels devoted themselves to the econ-
omic and historical side of the work, Dietzgen continued
his own specialty, the critique of the faculty of under-
standing.

He had never been a Hegelian. He had from the out-
set maiatained a critical attitude towards all philoso-
phers. He had given them all a fair chance to present
their claims and had found them all wanting in one
respect. Of course, he realised that each philosopher
was the product of his own time, and that each deserved
credit for his contribution to the uplift and explanation
of the human mind. And so he sifted the disorderly
mass of evidence offered by past and present philoso-
phers and came independently of Marx and Engels, not
only to a d.iscovery of their historical materialism, but to
an advance beyond them and a perfection of their
theory of historical evolution by his theory of under-
standing and conception of the world.

Antonio Labriola had been a Hegelian, like Marx and
Engels. In his researches into the problems of free will
and moral consciousness he had realised the inadequacy
of the idealist schools, and become equally convinced of
the inadequacy of the various forms of bourgeois materi-
alism, whether presented in the form of Comte's positiv-
ism, Spencer's metaphysical eclecticism, or Biichner's

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 227

mechanical realism. The work of Marx and Engels came
to him, more as a fulfillment of a long felt want, than
as a revelation. True to his scientific convictions, he
boldly avowed his Marxism, once that he had reached
this point. And, strange to say, the freedom of science
was more highly respected .in Italy than in the socalled
land of thinkers, Germany, or the socalled land of the
free, the North-American republic. Labriola retained
his chair of philosophy at the university of Rome.

Although an avowed follower of Marx and Engels,
Labriola was by no means their follower through thick
and thin. He was a thinking and critical follower, the
kind of followers that Marx and Engels desired. La-
briola did not look in Marxism for anything but what it
actually claimed to offer, that is, in his own words, "its
determined critique of political economy, its outlines of
historical materialism, and its proletarian politics." As
a former Hegelian, he was familiar with dialectics be-
fore he came in contact with Marxism. So far as the
special problems of formal philosophy were concerned,
he distinguished them from Marxism, although well
aware of their bearing upon historical materialism. But,
like Marx and Engels, he seems to have shelved the
problems of cognition^ and moral consciousness, as con-
crete studies, after adopting historical materialism for
his general guide. At least in all his writings on Marx-
ism, he never entered into an analysis of the limits of
cognition or the nature of the human faculty of thought.

This is characteristic of the entire generation of strict
Marxians from 1848 to 1900. All of them take the fact
of consciousness for granted, content with the general

228 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

declaration of Marx and Engels that thinking and being
are inseparable and that the general trend of human
thought is predominantly modified by economic condi-
tions. Even Franz Mehring, the official historian of the
German Social Democracy, who more than any other
Marxian had occasion to deal with problems of personal
psychology,* never went beyond the social horizon of
the psychological problem. He made brilliant researches
into the economic and political conditions shaping the
psychologies of men, with occasional hints a;t biological
characters, but he never went to the cosmic root of the
problem of cognition, even when he discussed the meta-
physical relapses of philosophers like Kant, Hegel, or
Schopenhauer.

This is not said in a spirit of disparagement. On the
contrary, it is a simple statement of historical fact. And
it explains itself quite naturally out of the circumstances
surrounding the origin and development of historical
materialism.

The founders of scientific Socialism inverted Hegelian
dialectics and transformed it into a practical method of
historical research. They had, indeed, squared their
own accounts with German classic philosophy and eigh-
teenth and nineteenth century materialism. But they
limited themselves from the outset to the practical social
implications of their new theory. They had to specialize
in order to accomplish something great, and they selected
with keen insight those specialties which bore most

♦See, for instance, Die Lessing Legende. — Furtiiermore, Zur
Psychologie Lassalle's, Neue Zelt, XXI, 2, No. 41, p. 456. — Also
Die Philosopliie des Selbstwusstseins and Demokrit und
Bpikur in Aus dera literarisclien Nachlass von Karl Marx,
Friedricli Engels und Ferdinand Lassalle, Vol. I, pages 41-57.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 229

directly upoii the practical problems of their time. To
what extent they had penetrated independently into the
problem of cognition before they made this choice, no
one can know but those comrades who have charge of
the unpublished joint manuscript of Marx and Engels
written in 1845-46. But it is safe to say that this manu-
script would have been published by this time, if it con-
tained such a contribution to historical materialism as
that supplied by Joseph Dietzgen. This assumption is
further strengthened by the fact that Marx and Engels
acknowledged Dietzgen 's merit and called him "the
philosopher of the proletariat. ' ' And it is further borne
out by the fact that even the latest writings of Engels,
such as Anti-Diihring and Feuerhach, in the passages
dealing directly with the problems of cognition, free will,
moral consciousness, do not contain anything which
materially modifies the original conception of human
consciousness formulated by Marx.

The obvious conclusion from these facts is that Marx
and Engels were acquainted with Dietzgen 's theory of
cognition, but had not familiarized themselves with it
except in so far as it touched upon society. They had not
assimilated its meaning as a concrete theory of cognition,
but only its general aspects as a contribution to historical
materialism. They had not realized its importance as a
key to the dialectic connection of class psychology with
individual psychology.

This is not a reflection on the acumen of Marx and
Engels. The simple chronological succession of Dietz-
gen 's principal works accounts for it. His Nature
of Human Brain Work was published in 1869.
It is a critique of reason in which he gives an epistemo-

230 SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY

logical substantiation of Marxian historical materialism.
But the monist dialectics of this work are not so clearly-
developed that its advance over Hegel, Marx and Engels
becomes apparent without close study. The next larger
work of Dietzgen dealing with philosophical questions
appeared in 1886. It was entitled Excursions
of a Socialist Into the Domain of Epistemology
and contained a critical discussion of the contem-
poraneous idealist and materialist philosophies. It
was more an application of Dietzgen 's own conclusions
to the philosophical position of prominent bourgeois
philosophers than a systematic presentation and demon-
stration of his own position. Marx had been dead three
years when this work appeared, and Engels was over-
whelmed with his editorial work on Capital, his
studies of natural science, and party polemics. The
philosophical work of Engels published soon after the
above work of Dietzgen was Feuerbach (1888), and
in it Engels gave prominent recognition to Dietzgen only
for his independent discovery of the dialectics of histor-
ical materialism. He says nothing there about Dietzgen 's
contribution to the theory of cognition, and his own posi-
tion on that theory is substantially the same as that taken
by him in Anti^DUhring* that is a more elaborate
application of limited historical materialism. The next
work of Dietzgen on this subject did not appear until
1895, the year of Engels' demise. This was the culminat-
ing work of Dietzgen, The Positive Outcome of Phil-
osophy, and it also contained his Letters on Logic. Here
he fully elaborated his cosmic dialectics and drove
metaphysics from its last hiding place.
♦First German edition 1878, second 1885, third 1894.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 231

We see, then, that neither Marx nor Bngels had an
opportunity to familiarize themselves with Dietzgen's
perfected dialectics.

Mehring's neglect of the special problem of cognition
explains itself in the same simple manner. He performed
most of his classic work before the crowning book of
Dietzgen was published. ' Mehring's first History of
the German Social Democracy, written in 1877, when
he was still an opponent of Socialism and had not
fully digested the significance of his previous experi-
ence with Marxism, could not well be expected to
contain an objective appreciation of Dietzgen, even if
Dietzgen's work up to that time had clearly revealed the
real import of his researches. Mehring's Leasing
Legende and his new and completely rewritten edition
of the History of the German Social Democracy
were completed before he had had sufficient oppor-
tunity to familiarize himself with Dietzgen's monism.
Mehring's psychological studies, even those in his
commentaries to the Nachlass, etc., did not lead him
particularly to an epistemological analysis of individual
consciousness, but rather to a study of the social
elements affecting the personality. For this purpose
the limited historical materialism of Marx was suf-
ficient. By this means, Mehring added incidentally
another proof of the characteristic difference between
historical materialism and proletarian monism. Histor-
ical materialism, in explaining the psychology of classes,
does not establish a firm dialectic connection between the
class and the individual. It takes insufficient notice of
the simultaneous concatenation of events and lays stress
too one-sidedly upon the revolutionary tendencies of in-

232 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

dustrial evolution. Vke versa, when inquiring into the
problems of personal psychology, Mehring considers per-
sonal consciousness pre-eminently as a part of the exist-
ing environment, without a dialectic appreciation of
hereditary influences transmitted by the natural selection
of ancestral and social characters. But often physio-
logical psychology or the theory of cognition furnish a
better clue to certain movements of the personal will
than historical materialism does. At any rate, it is
necessa^ to keep all the sources of the personal mind in
view. This insufficient amalgamation of simultaneous
and successive movements is the chief weakness of lim-
ited historical materialism. And the dialectic compre-
hension and reconciliation of these two movements is
precisely one of Dietzgen's chief merits.

"We need not wonder, then, that Labriola, as a strict
Marxian, staid within the circle of limited Marxism, also
in referring to these special problems. Whether he ever
read Dietzgen's writings, I do not know. He certainly
made no allusion to them in any of his works on histor-
ical materialism. And his own interpretation and appli-
cation of historical materialism remained strictly within
the limits of the first generation of Marxian theorists.
This seems to me an added proof that neither Marx's
nor Engels' writings give a sufftcient clue to the complete
solution of the problems of cognition and moral conscious-
ness. For so painstaking a thinker and investigator as
Labriola, who spent years in securing every scrap of
evidence for Marxism which he could locate, would
surely have mentioned such an important contribution
to historical materialism, if he could have noticed it. It
was not until after his death, in 1904, that the claims of

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 233

Joseph Dietzgen were more and more recognized by the
leading Marxians of Germany, and even then this recog-
nition was by no means identical with a full assimilation
of Dietzgen 's conclusions.

Under these circumstances, Labriola offers a rare
opportunity to compare Marx's limited historical mater-
ialism with the more comprehensive dialectic materialism
of Joseph Dietzgen. This opportunity is so much more
valuable, as attempts have been made of late to belittle
Dietzgen 's contribution to historical materialism. It is
an eloquent fact that these aspersions have come almost
exclusively from quarters, which have shown a very
indifferent understanding even for Marx's historical
materialism — Neokantian agnostics, metaphysical mater-
ialists, and other eclectic philosophers. This fact assumes
a crushing significance, when we remember that Marx and
Engels, and their most gifted followers, have not hesi-
tated to acknowledge Dietzgen 's merit, even if they have
not fully appreciated it. These undeniable facts refute
all claims of those would-be critics of Dietzgen to a
serious consideration. A man who has not grasped the
significance of Marx's historical materialism is poorly
equipped to criticise Dietzgen 's contribution to it.

History is always the most convincing proof of any
theory. And history has shown that historical mater-
ialism by itself, without Dietzgen 's theory of under-
standing, cannot free itself from metaphysical survivals.

I shall not attempt to give a detailed proof of this
statement in this place. I shall merely avail myself of
Labriola 's own work as an illustration to what extent
historical materialism can be consistently dialectic with-
out the help of Dietzgen 's dialectic materialism.

234 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

If we try to sum up the most characteristic statements
of Labriola, which express his interpretation of historical
materialism in so far as it bears upon problems of cogni-
tion, we arrive at the following result :

"Passing from the underlying economic structure to
the picturesque whole of a given history, we need the
aid of that complexus of notions and knowledge which
may be called, for the lack of a better term, social psy-
chology." {Historical Materialism, p. Ill): ..."We
hold this principle to be indisputable that it is not the
forms of consciousness which determine the human being,
but it is the manner of being which determines the con-
sciousness. But these forms of consciousness, even as
they are determined by the conditions of life, constitute
in themselves also a part of history." (P. 113.) . . ."The
discovery of the instruments of labor is at once the cause
and effect of those conditions and of those forms of the
inner life to which, isolating them by abstraction, we
give the name of imagination, intellect, reason, thought,
etc." (P. 121.) ...Historical materialism implies "a
practical mental revolution of the theory of understand-
ing." {Socialism and Philosophy, p. 58.) .. ."Every
act of thinking is an effort, that is to say, new labor. In
order to perform it, we need above all the material of
mature experience and the methodical instruments, made
familiar and effective by long handling. . . Every time
we set about producing a new thought we need not only
the external materials and impulses of actual experience,
but also an adequate effort in order to pass from the
most primitive stages of mental life to that superior,
derived and complex, stage called thought, in which we
cannot maintain ourselves, unless we exert our will-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 235

power, which has a certain determined duration beyond
which it cannot be exerted. " (P. 58-59.) . . .By inverting
the dialectics of Hegel, Marx set aside "the rythmic
movement of the Idea Itself, the spontaneous generation
of thought" and adopted "the rythmic movement of real
things, a movement which ultimately produces thought. ' '
(P. .60.)... "The means of social activity, made up on
one side of the conditions and instruments, on the other
of the products of co-operative labor and specialisation,
constitute together with the free gifts of nature the
materials and incentives for our internal activity." (P.
59.) .. .Historical materialism implies "a tendency
toward monism. . . a critical tendency of formation."
(P. 84.) . . ."A formal and critical tendency toward
monism on one side, an expert ability to keep a level head
in special research on the other, that is the outcome."
(P. 86.) . . ."All the knowable may be known; and all
the knowable will be known in an infinite time ; and for
the knowable reflecting about itself, for us, on the field
of cognition, there is nothing of higher importance. Such
a general statement reduces itself practically to saying:
Knowledge is valuable to the extent that we can actually
know things. It is" a mere play of fantasy to suppose
that our mind recognises as a fact an absolute difference
between the limits of the knowable and the absolutely
unknowable." (P. 88.)... "A queer thing this so-
called thing in itself, which we do not know, neither to-
day, nor tomorrow, which we shall never know, and of
which we nevertheless know that we cannot know it. This
thing cannot belong to the field of knowledge, for this
gives us no information of the unknowable." (P. 89.)
.,."0n this field of derived and complicated psychic

236 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

production we al-e still far removed from the most ele-
mentary conditions necessary to enable us by observation
and experiment to follow the rise and development of
the first sensations from one extreme to the other, that
is, from the peripheral apparatus to the cerebral centers,
in which irritations and vibrations are converted into
conscious apperception, into consciousness." (P. 13l.)
. . ."Whether the people of the future, of whom we so-
cialists often entertain such exalted ideas, will still pro-
duce any religion or not, I can neither affirm nor deny."
(P. 143.) . . ."We cannot give ourselves an adequate
account of thought, unless it be by an act of thinking."
(P. 149.) . . ."The psychology of labor, which would be
the crowning of determinism, remains yet to be written."

;(p. 178.)

In these statements, the whole gist of Labriola's inter-
pretation of historical materialism, in its philosophical
aspects, is contained. That it is a faithful and correct
interpretation of the position of Marx and Bngels, no
well informed Marxian will deny. Some of these state-
ments sound almost as though they were duplicates of
statements of Dietzgen. But the "dot over the i" is
wanting. And Labriola finally says clearly that we can-
not solve this problem by physiological analyses, but only
"by an act of thinking," and that the crowning work of
proletarian psychology remains to be writ-ten.

No matter how much we may analyse these statements
from all sides, we shall find that they say in substance
no more than this : The historical materialism of Marx
and Engels has not solved the problem of cognition, but
it implies, by its tendency toward monism, a gradual
amalgamation of science and philosophy, the growth of

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 237

a "critically self-conscious thought identified with the
material of knowledge, the complete elimination of the
traditional distinction between philosophy and science. ' '
{Socialism and Philosophy, p. 76). The characteristic
outcome of historical materialism, according to him, is
the elimination of speculative and the adoption of in-
ductive dialectics. By this means materialist meta-
physics as defined by Bngels, that is, the purely mechani-
cal conception of the universe and society, is displaced
by the evolutionary conception. On the other hand, says
Labriola, metaphysics has still another meaning than
that given to it by Engels. It also refers to supernatural
dualism as distinguished from natural monism. And in
this respect, he declares, metaphysics has not been over-
come by historical materialism, nor will it ever be fully
overcome. "Human beings have never been exclusively
theological or metaphysical, nor will they ever be exclus-
ively scientific." {Socialism and Philosophy, p. 72.)
For this reason, Labriola cautiously refrains from mak-
ing any definite assertion as to whether the people of the
future will stiU produce any religion.

Clearly, then, the strict Marxian Labriola agrees with
proletarian monists that historical materialism did not
fully overcome metaphysics in every form. More dis-
criminating than other champions of limited historical
materialism, he sees correctly that it is only a new orien-
tation on the general problems of cognition, but that it
has not solved the special problem of cognition, the
nature of the human faculty of thought. He further
agrees with us that historical materialism does not result
in a complete amalgamation of philosophy and science.
He is even inclined to ridicule the idea that this will ever

238 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

be fully accomplished. On the other hand, he claims
that this was accomplished more perfectly by Marx than
by any other thinker. And from his point of view he is
right.

But we have advanced since then. And from our ad-
vanced position we see that Labriola's estimate requires
a modification. Marx and Engels were indeed the first
to apply dialectic materialism most perfectly to economics
and history, but only so far as the horizon of their his-
torical materialism permitted. Joseph Dietzgen, on the
other hand, did not only discover the dialectics of histori-
cal materialism as a social science independently of Marx
and Engels, a fact which Engels frankly acknowledged,
but he also solved the problem of cognition, he revealed
the essence of the human faculty of thought and was
thereby enabled to arrive at a perfect dialectic concilia-
tion of the simultaneous and successive movements of the
world process and historical process.
\, Let us sum up the salient points of Dietzgen 's position
as we did those of Labriola :

"If we could place the general work of thinking on a
scientific basis, if we could find a theory of general
thought, if we were able to discover the means by which
reason arrives at understanding, if we could develop a
method by which truth is produced scientifically, then
we should acquire for science in general, and for our in-
dividual faculty of judgment, the same certainty of
success which we already possess in special fields of
science." {The Nature of Human Brain Work, p. 48) . . .
The general sciences are at variance with one another
because they lack the touchstone of "a conscious theory
of understanding." (P. 50.) . . ."Whoever knows the gen-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 239

eral rule by which error may be distinguished from
truth, and knows it as well as the rule in grammar by
which a noun is distinguished from a verb, will be able
to distinguish in both eases with equal certainty." (P. 50)
. . . Reason, or the faculty of thought is, in the first place,
"not a mystical object which produces the individual
thought. On the contrary, it is a fact that certain indi-
vidual thoughts are the products of perceptions gained
in contact with certain objects, and that these in connec-
tion with certain brain processes produce the concept of
reason." (P. 69) . . ."Thinking is a physical process and
it cannot exist or produce anything without materials
any more than any other process of labor." (P. 74) . . .
The object and the concept of the object are two separate
things, but both are natural things. The one exists as a
tangible fact, the other as a reflex of that fact. So are
the faculty of thought and our thought about it two
separate things. The one is the instrument, the other
its product. In order to understand its own nature, the
faculty of thought proceeds in the same way that it does
in seeking to understand other things. It thinks about
itself as it does about other natural objects. "The
development of the general out of the concrete constitutes
the general method by which reason arrives at under-
standing." "P. 74) . . .It pursues the same method in
arriving at an understanding about itself. "The
'world itself is nothing but the sum total of its pheno-
mena. The same holds good of that part of the world
phenomena which we call reason, spirit, faculty of
thought. Although we distinguish between the faculty
of thought and its phenomena or manifestations, yet the
faculty of thought 'itself,' or 'pure' reason, exists in

240 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

reality only in the sum total of its manifestations." (P.
76)... "The faculty of thought practically exists only
in the sum total of our thoughts. . . These thoughts, this
practical reason, serve as the material out of which our
brain manufactures the concept of 'pure' reason." (P.
76) . . ."Consciousness, the word indicates, is the knowl-
edge of being in existence. It is a form, or a quality,
of existence, which differs from other forms of be-
ing in that it is aware of its existence." (P. 78)...
' ' The idealist conception that there is an abstract nature
behind phenomena which materializes itself in them is
refuted by the understanding that this hidden nature
does not dwell in the world outside of the human mind,
but in the brain of man. But since this brain difleren-
tiates between phenomena and their nature, between the
concrete and the general, only by means of sense percep-
tions, it cannot be denied that the distinction between
phenomena and their nature is well founded; only, the
essential nature of things is materially existent, and our
faculty of thought is a real and natural one." (P. 86) . . .
"It is true of spiritual things as well as of physical
things. . .that they are what they are, not 'in them-
selves,' not in their abstract nature, but in contact with
other things, in reality." (P. 86) . . .Hence things must
be conceived dialectically, first, as being in touch with
one another and existing only through their universal
interrelation side by side, and secondly, as following in
succession one out of another. They are mutually causes
and effects, simultaneously in space and successively in
time. They are inseparable, whether seen in the past,
the present, or the f jature. Matter and mind, matter and
force, are only different names for interrelated things

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 241

and their phenomena. The essential point is not that
one thing is first, another last, although such a distinction
is valid enough. The main point is that the one cannot
be without the other nor without the universal inter-
relation. . ."In short, the world consists only in its inter-
relations. Anything that is torn out of its relations with
the world ceases to exist. A thing is anything 'in itself
only because it is something for other things, by acting
or appearing in connection with something else."...
"Truth itself is the universe, the infinite and inexhausti-
ble." {Letters on Logic, p. 202) . . ."Thought, intellect,
are really existing, and their existence is a uniform part
of the universal existence. That is the cardinal point
of sober logic." (P. 195) . . ."Special truths enlighten the
intellect. But the understanding that all specialties are
connected with one another by one monad, or unit, which
is truth itself, gives us a certain general enlightenment
which certainly does not render any special research
unnecessary, or take the place of it, but which may well
serve as the foundation of all research, which may there-
fore be called 'a fundamental assistance.' " (P. 207) . . .
"Kant has demonstrated that the truth in general is as
much a matter of experience as the braia with which we
search for it. He has shown beyond a doubt that our
eyes and ears are inseparably connected with our mind
and with the whole cosmic truth. But the persistent
spirit of transcendentalism, or what is the same thing,
the traditional belief in a transcendental spirit, has led
him ta grant a mysterious existence alongside of, or
above, the human mind, alongside of, or above, the
cosmic truth, to an incomprehensible monster spirit and
to a phantastical hyper-truth." (P. 223) . . ."The truth

242 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

which is the universe, the cosmic or universal truth, will
reveal to you the absurdity of abnormal humility which
is contained in the dualistic doctrine of two minds. . .All
intellects partake of the nature of the general intellect,
and no intellect can step above or below this general
nature without losing sense or reason." (P. 224) . . ."AH
things are one thing, are interdependent, stand in rela-
tion of cause and effect to one another. . .To say that all
things have a cause means that they have a mother. The
fact that every mother has a mother finds its final ending
in the world mother, or mother world, which is absolute
and motherless, and contains all mothers in its womb . . .
All things have a mother, but to expect that the world
mother should logically have a mother is to carry logic
to extremities and to misunderstand the intellect and its
art of reasoning." (P. 268) . . ."In order to differentiate
logically, we must know that everything is everything,
that the universe or absolute is its own cause and the
final cause of everything, which embraces all distinctions,
even that of causality and that between mind and mat-
ter." (P. 283) . . ."Understand that everything is dialect-
ically interrelated, that the infinite, eternal, divine, can
live only in the finite special things, and that on the
other hand, the parts of the world can exist only in the
absolute" (P. 323), which is the natural universe and
has no other universe above or below it... "It is this
two-fold nature of the universe, this being at the same
time limited and unlimited, the reflection of its eternal
essence and eternal truth ia changing phenomena, which
has rendered its understanding very difficult for the
human mind. ..The positive outcome of philosophy is
the knowledge of the monistic way in which the duality

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 243

of the universe is active in the human understanding."
{The Positive Outcome of Philosophy, p. 342.)

A simple comparison of these two summaries reveals
at a glance their characteristic theoretical difference.
Historical materialism takes its departure from human
society, dialectic monism from the natural universe.
This leads to important practical differences.

We have seen that Labriola admits that historical
materialism as a mere interpretation of social evolution
does not fully overcome metaphysics as a theory of cog-
nition. At the same time he claims that histo:f ical mater-
ialism gives the last blow to all forms of that idealism
which regards things as mere reflexes, etc., of so-called
a priori thought, and of bourgeois materialism (Socialism
and Philosophy, p. 60) .

Here we take issue with Labriola. If historical mater-
ialism does not eliminate metaphysics from the theory of
cognition, neither can it give the last blow to all systems
of metaphysical idealism and materialism. "Without a
monistic theory of cognition, historical materialism, is
imperfect and itself retains some elements of meta-
physics.^^' Neither can historical materialism be perfectly
dialectic without a dialectic theory of cognition. This
is shown by the works of Marx and Engels and of
their most prominent interpreters. It is shown every
day in the activity of the various Socialist Parties. Un-
consciously, the great majority of the socialists still prove
that class-consciousness without dialectic world-conscious-
ness remains metaphysical and unscientific. Labriola is
no exception to this rule.

Under these circumstances we wish to modify Labrio-
la 's statement that Marx accomplished most perfectly

244 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the amalgamation of philosophy and science. Marx was
the first to make a conscious step in this direction. But
he could not come to perfection in this until the theory
of cognition had found its dialectic solution. "We must
not attribute to Marx what was historically impossible
for him. Otherwise we should commit a violation of
dialectics and of historical materialism itself.

A glance at the works of Marx and Engels with a view
of testing them on this point will easily reveal the cor-
rectness of our claims. Space forbids its detailed sub-
stantiation by quotations from these works at this junc-
ture. But our claim can be easily verified. In place of
particular quotations, I shall here content myself with
pointing to the following undeniable facts :

1) According to the confession of Engels, he and Marx
frequently laid excessive stress upon the importance of
the economic basis of society as a clue to changes in the
ideological superstructure. This led especially some of
their followers to a neglect of the other elements entering
into the problems of historical materialism. One of the
most common mistakes resulting from this misunder-
standing was an underestimation of the influence of ideas
on social evolution. *

2) The imperfect theoretical foundation of dialectic
thought and the insufficient assimilation of dialectics
showed itself, furthermore, in the fact that Marx himself
did not always find the historically correct solution for
the theoretical evaluation of practical facts. See, for
instance, his critique of the Gotha program of 1875. This
critique was justified enough from the abstract theoret-
ical point of view, but entirely overlooked the fact that
the Gotha program had to be drafted under conditions

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 245

to which this abstract yardstick could not be applied
offhand.

3) Mehring shows in his commentaries to Aus Dem
Literarischen Nachlass, etc., that Marx and Engels
not unfrequently overshot the mark in their con-
troversies with their antagonists, when they tried to
apply their theoretical conclusions to practical facts,
such as the Ten Hours Bill in England. History subse-
quently corrected their views upon this and similar ques-
tions. This is not due merely to the natural inefficiency
that goes with the first handling of a new instrument,
but also to the inadequacy of limited historical mater-
ialism itself.

4) By underrating the dialectic interrelations between
simultaneously existing things and overrating the revolu-
tionary trend of successive interrelations, Marx and
Engels were led to a wrong estimate of the speed of social
evolution.* In the Communist Manifesto they ex-
pected that the proletarian revolution would follow
immediately after the bourgeois revolution. In his pre-
face to the first German edition of Capital in 1897,
Marx still referred approvingly to remarks of bourgeois
thinkers concerning an imminent radical change in the
relations between Capital and Labor. And even as 3 ate
as 1886, Engels awaited a speedy collapse of the capitalist
system. Similar sanguine expectations were nursed by
other prominent German socialists, and to this day we
meet occasionally with well informed comrades who
harbor such expectations.

The numerous controversies still carried on in all

•See Eugene Dietzgen, Der wissenschaftliche Sozlallsmus und
J. Dietzgen's Erkenntnisstheorie. Neue Zeit, XXII, 1, No. 8,
page 231.

246 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

Socialist parties over formal problems of historical ma-
terialism or practical problems of tactics all bear the
imprint of those early imperfections of historical mater-
ialism. The period of the after-effects of those imper-
fections is not yet over.

The use of the historical method of Marx must be
learned, like the use of any other instrument. And only
by frequent sharpening can this instrument be kept
effective. One generation, or one human life, is not
sufficient to convert the Marxian theories into flesh and
blood. Neither will Dietzgen's dialectic materialism be
fully assimilated by the present generation of Marxian
thinkers. Socialists will become skilled in the use of
these instruments only as one generation after another
becomes more and more imbued with them. And even
the best assimilation of Dietzgen's dialectics will not
prevent socialists from occasionally forming wrong esti-
mates of things in the making. But Dietzgen's theory
of cognition will certainly insure a more dialectic appli-
cation of historical materialism.

Labriola quite naturally shows the historical short-
comings of strict Marxism. I repeat, this is not said in
the spirit of disparagement. It is merely explained as a
natural fact. It is not only a proof of his insufficient
assimilation of historical materialism, but also a further
evidence of the inadequacy of limited historical material-
ism to produce a consistently dialectic thought.*

*Of course, it will be difflcult to decide in every individual
case, to what extent the blame for certain mistakes rests with
the method, and to what extent it rests with an imperfect
understanding or wrong application of that method by some
individual. I cannot enter into such an analysis here. The
thing which decides here is the recurrence of the same pheno-

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 247

Take for instance one of the most flagrant illustrations
of anti-dialectic language in Labriola's essays. In his
essay In Memory of the Communist Manifesto, he
says: "There are really no historic experiences but
those that history makes itself. It is as impossible
to foresee them as it is to plan them beforehand
or to make them to order" (P. 11). In unreconciled
contradiction to this statement, we read on page 10 that
we can show by the present necessity of Socialism "the
inevitability of its triumph." On page 13 we read that
Marx and Bngels had "anticipated the events which had
occurred" and that they had "an eye only to the
future." On page 16 we read that the Manifesto gives
the genesis of the class-struggle, "details its evolutionary
rhythm, and predicts its final result." And so forth
throughout the book. It is evident that Labriola had
in mind to say that we cannot fully foresee historical
events in all their details, but that historical materialism
at least enables us to foresee the general trend of events
and to organize ourselves accordingly, and that our
ability so to organize ourselves is an experience produced
by history itself. But he states this in such a f orm^ that
it becomes a contradiction, which lacks a dialectic connec-
tion.* The sole purpose of science is to supply us with
the means to act with a predetermination of success, and

mena, which appear on an average among the majority of strict
Marxians. And only from this point of view must the following
remarks about Lahriola be judged.

♦This manner of thinking, which first lays stress onesidedly
upon one side of a question and then after a while sketches its
other side equally onesidedly, forgetting their mutual connec-
tions, is typical of bourgeois metaphysics. But it has left its
traces also in historical materialism and thereby has done
much harm.

248 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

historical materialism fulfills this purpose only to the-
extent that it permits us to forecast the trend of history
in general and apply this general forecast to a specific
circle of particular cases.

Labriola is forcibly reminded of the inadequacy of
historical materialism to overcome metaphysical thought
on the field of economics and history, by the fate of his
friends Sorel and Croce. Both of these men first became
enthusiastic supporters of historical materialism, and
great admirers of Labriola. But they quickly relapsed
into metaphysical economies and history and compelled
Labriola to disavow them. (Socialism and Philosophy.)
They lacked the backing of a dialectic theory of cogni-
tion, which would have made such a relapse into meta-
physics impossible.

Labriola himself illustrates how easily an excessive
emphasis on particular points and a consequent under-
rating of other points leads to anti-dialectic results, in
his critique of Enrico Ferri's Socialism and Modem
Science. Ferri showed in this work that Darwin's
theory of natural selection and Spencer's theory of
organic evolution supplement the Marxian theory of
social evolution, and that the organic development of the
universe together with the biological development of man
form the natural basis of the historical evolution of^
human tools and modes of production. He had thus
given a monistically comprehensive presentation of the
organic and social process of development. Labriola 's
critique, however, leaves the impression that Ferri tried
to make Darwinism and Spencerianism the basis of
Marxism, in other words, that Ferri tried to make of
Marxism a derivative of Darwinism and Spencerianism.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 249

But this is not a fact. Such an idea could arise in
Labriola's mind only through a misapprehension of the
position of Marxism toward the other sciences, or
through a misinterpretation of Ferri's views. Ferri
merely shows the natural analogy between these three
theories and points out that they supplement one
another monistically. He makes quite a clear distinction
between Spencer as a scientist and Spencer as a
bourgeois philosopher and individualist. And on the
last score, Ferri criticises Spencer quite as severely as
Labriola himself does.

It is true, Ferri made the mistake of taking a some-
what uncertain position on the question of the social
equality of the sexes. His studies in criminal anthropo-
logy had led him to the conclusion that women are natur-
ally the mental inferiors of men. And instead of
demanding equal social and political rights for women
with men, he took the anti-Marxian and anti-dialectic
position of demanding only better conditions of life for
them. He did not give sufficient thought to the proba-
bility that the biological inferiority of women may not be
an absolute consequence of natural selection, but mainly
due to the economic oppression from which women have
suffered under class rule. Whether they will be physic-
ally and mentally inferior to men when both sexes shall
have had as many centuries of economic and political
equality as they have had of inequality, remains to be.
seen. Under a socialist equality it is certain that labor-
power in general and motherhood in particular will be
appreciated more dia,lectically at their social value than
is practical under class-rule. Therefore we declare that

^oO SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

the alleged physical inferiority of women is no more a
reason to deny them equal rights with men than the
increasing physical deterioration of both sexes among
proletarians is a justification for the class rule of the
better fed bourgeoisie.

The real difference between the points of view of
Labriola and Ferri is due to their different individual
development. Labriola developed from Hegelianism
straight into historical materialism, the same as Marx
and Bngels. Ferri, on the other hand, came into Socialism
by way of Darwinism and Spencerianism, in other words,
he drew from Darwinism and Spencerianism the obvious
social conclusions which their founders had refused to
draw. In this Ferri made quite as revolutionary a step
as Marx and Engels did by drawing the obvious natural
conclusions from Hegel's dialectics. Labriola, instead of
appreciating this, and realizing that we cannot all come
into Socialism by the Hegelian route, objects to Ferri 's
appreciation of the merits of Darwin and Spencer as
teachers of dialectic thought. But Ferri has quite as
much right to pay his historical debts to Darwin and
Spencer as Labriola has to pay his to Hegel. It is true,
that scientific Socialism is intimately connected with
Hegel, but only because its founders were Germans. This
does not in the least prove, that Darwinism and Spencer-
ianism do not lead to Socialism, The fact remains that
they do, and Ferri 's great merit is to have proclaimed
this freely and proved it. In this respect, Ferri 's work
is quite as significant for Italy as Bebel's position on
Darwinism is for Germany.

So far as Ferri falls short of a perfect dialectic presen-
tation of facts, he shares this sbortQoming with Labriola

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 251

and most of the other Marxians, for the simple reason
that they are not familiar with Dietzgen's theory of
cognition.* ,

From his point of view as a strict Marxian, Labriola
is quite within the limits of historical materialism, when
he modestly dismisses the question whether the "people
of the future. . .will still produce any religion or not."
It is also quite consistent with this position that he doubts
whether "the whole theory in its intimate bearings, or
the whole theory in its entirety, that is, as a philosophy, ' '
will ever become "one of the articles of universal popular
culture." (Socialism and Philosophy, p. 14.) But from
the point of view of proletarian monism, we are out-
spoken in claiming definitely that metaphysical theology
and philosophy will give way to dialectic monism as a
conception of the world and life. Of course, we agree
with Labriola, that there will hardly ever be a time when
all human beings will be consistent materialist monists.
And we do not at all claim that even those who fully
assimilate proletarian monism will never make any mis-
takes. No single man will ever become omniscient. But

•It goes without saying that my critique of strict Marxism
applies with still greater force to revisionism, neo-Marxism,
and other eclectic forms of old and new socialism, which are
more or less indifferent to historical materialism. But this
does not mean that I am trying to pose as an impartial judge.
I could not be impartial if I tried to be. Every science takes
sides for some definite knowledge, and every man is consciously
or unconsciously a partisan of a definite cause. I am a partisan
of strict Marxism, and I work in the United States along the
lines which Bebel, Kautsky, Mehring, and others, follow in
Germany. In other words, theoretically I stand on the ground
of the class-struggle, tactically I am in favor of the tried "good
old tactics," which uses parliamentarism more for the political
education of the working class, than for offering principles in
exchange for minister's chairs, vice-gresldentlal honors, etc.,
under a capitalist government.

252 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

we claim positively that the evolution from metaphysical
into clearly monistic thought is inseparably connected
■vvith the evolution of the class-conscious proletariat, and
that with the victory of this proletariat, proletarian
monism will become as much the predominant mode of
thought as metaphysical dualism is and has been under
class rule.

True to his conception of historical materialism, La-
briola does not enter into a discussion of the special
problems of cognition even where his subject deals direct-
ly with formal philosophy, as it does in his Socialism
and Philosophy and in his review of Masaryk's
Grundlagen des Marxismus. Hence he cannot do
justice to the subject. From the point of view of
Dietzgen's theory of cognition, Masaryk's work remains
to be criticised. Labriola waves Masaryk's philosophical
arguments aside with a jest. Yet Masaryk's philosophy
is the very citadel of his work, and a few well aimed
shots from Dietzgen's arsenal would reduce this citadel
to crumbling ruins.

Equally unsatisfactory is Labriola 's treatment of Mas-
aryk's idea of moral consciousness. Masaryk holds that
moral consciousness is an a priori fact. Labriola does
not think that this deserves a serious reply. Perhaps he
is right, so far as Masaryk is personally concerned. But
Masaryk is for us but a phenomenon by which we can
demonstrate the hoUowness of metaphysical idealism.
And he is so much more serviceable for this purpose, as
philosophy is his specialty. It is a pity that Labriola 'a
unfamiliarity with proletarian monism prevented him
from giving Masaryk a more exhaustive reply. Even
historical materialism would have enabled Labriola to

SOCULISM AND PHILOSOPHY 253

do better than to dismiss Masaryk with the curt state-
ment: "The author claims for moral consciousness the
privilege of an indisputable and first hand fact. I need
not stop to declare that one need not be a historical
materialist, nor even a simple materialist, in order to
assign to such an infantile opinion a place among the
fairy tales." (P. 215.) For in his essay on Histor-
ical Materialism Labriola says himself: "The moral
consciousness which really exists is an empirical fact;
it is an index or a summary of the relative ethical
formation of each individual. If there can be in it
material for science, this cannot explain the ethical rela-
tions by means of the conscience, but the very thing it
needs to understand is how that conscience is formed."
(P. 207).

Yes, that is the point. Explain how the moral con-
science is formed and what it means. Labriola does not
attempt to explain this, because it exceeds the limits of
historical materialism. So far as historical materialism
can express itself on this question, Engels has done
so in his Anti-Diihring : "One cannot discuss the ques-
tion of morality and right, without touching upon the
problem of the so-called free will, of the accountability
of man, of the relation between necessity and freedom . . .
Freedom does not consist in a fancied independence from
laws of nature, but in the understanding of these laws,
and the resulting possiblity to make them produce
definite effects according to our plans. Freedom of the
will, therefore, signifies nothing else but the faculty of
making decisions in harmony with expert understanding.
Freedom. . .consists in a control of ourselves and of
nature based on an understanding of natural necessities ;

254 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

consequently it is necessarily a product of historical
development." (P. 111.)

These general statements, however, do not constitute
a sufficient solution of the problem of the relatively free
will, any more than the general formulation of historical
materialism is a satisfactory solution of the problem of
cognition. The will problem can be completely solved
only by Dietzgen's theory of cognition. Dietzgen him-
self, however, did not attempt to apply his dialectic
monism to the will problem in moral consciousness. He
contented himself with a monistic explanation of moral-
ity, without entering into the will problem beyond the
general position of historical materialism. This expla-
nation amounts in so many words to this: An under-
standing of the human faculty of thought reveals the
fact that absolute moral concepts deduced from so-called
"pure" reason are meaningless abstractions. If we
understand that reason cannot arrive at understanding
without material objects, and that morality is based on
common needs, then we also realize that moral standards
are not eternal or absolute, but relative and temporary
rules of conduct adapted to definite social stages.*

The freedom of the will is a relative freedom. So
much we know, thanks to Engels' general statement and
Dietzgen's epistemological confirmation of it. To what
extent the freedom of the will is relative, and to what
extent it must always remain subject to absolute necessi-
ties, remains to be analyzed. Karl Kautsky has recently

*See chapter on "Morality and Right" in Joseph Dietzgen's
Nature of Human Brain Work. — Also, Marx Stirner and Joseph
Dietzgen, by Eugene Dietzgen, in Philosophical Essays of J.
Dietzgen, where the position of Bngels on freedom and
necessity is explicitly endorsed and supplemented by a dialectiq
theory of cognition.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 1255

made a contribution to this subject in his EtKics and the
Materialist Conception of History. A dialectic critique
of this work has not yet been published. And this is not
the place to undertake it.

At any rate, if we were asked to reply to Masaryk's
assertion that moral consciousness is a metaphysical
entity, we should tell him: "Moral consciousness is in-
deed an indisputable fact, as you say. But it is not an
a priori fact. It is is not an eternal, unchangeable, super-
natural entity which expresses itself in moral conscious-
ness. Your metaphysical ethics and moral codes are
flotsam and jetsam on the high seas of age-long class-
struggles. They are but mental images of practical needs
moulded into meaningless abstractions. They have no
practical power, because they have always been inapplica-
ble under the prevailing conditions. They have floated
in the air just as your metaphysical ideas have. What
men hear when they listen to the voice of what they call
their- moral conscience is but the primeval voice of
natural needs modified by social conditions. And the
fantastic veil which the metaphysical theologians and
philosophers have thrown over these needs has rendered
their voice well-nigh unintelligible to mankind. The
hand of the class-conscious proletariat tears this fan-
tastic veil aside. Then it becomes evident that human
consciousness, and also that part of it which is called
moral conscience, is a product of cosmic, telluric, physio-
logical and social evolution. Experiences of millions of
years of development have become firmly impressed in
the physiological and psychic make-up of men. Some of
these impressions have become solidified in physiological
structures. Others are still in the plastic stage. Others

256 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

are as yet mere vague ideas. Proletarian class-conscious-
ness gives to tlie working class a new social standard by
which to measure the moral value of their actions and
ideals. The first demand of this revolutionary ethics is :
"Working men of all countries, unite for the overthrow
of class rule and the organization of an environment in
which all human beings shall be able to secure the natural
requirements for their normal physiological and psycho-
logical development. Only then will they be able to
adapt themselves consciously to the understood require-
ments of a scientific morality. This will not be an eternal
morality, any more than others before it were. For the
present, the immediate demands of the new proletarian
ethics are the following: The abolition of all economic,
political, and intellectual oppression; a reduction of the
struggle for the material requirements of life to a min-
imum by a collective control of productive processes ; an
understanding of cosmic, social, and individual evolu-
tion; sexual selection of evolutionary natures; and a
control of self in accord with the requirements of uni-
versal evolution through the fulfillment of the preceding
conditions.* Every one of these demands is opposed to
bourgeois ethics and to the fundamental laws of bour-
geois society. Therefore our ethics are revolutionary and
nothing but the proletarian class-struggle can and will
realize this proletarian ideal. This class-struggle is
under way and nearing its climax. Your metaphysical
and eternal a priori moral conscience will find a Very
sober and prosaic end. "What are you going to do about
it, Mr. Masaryk?"

•See my Science and Revolution, page 191.

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 257

A perfect assimilation and application of our insight
into the nature of the human faculty of thought, its
dialectic interrelation with the historical process, and the
practical significance of the understood relative freedom
of our wills, carries with it a scientific broadening of
historical materialism and an elimination of much fric-
tion from our daily party, life. For the present, this
assimilation and practical application of the theoretical
achievements of proletarian thinkers remain a consum-
mation to be devoutly wished for. This is due, aside
from the above-mentioned shortcomings of historical
materialism, to the fact that the growth and assimilation
of ideas is itself a historical process, and that the spread
of proletarian ideas is strongly checked by capitalist
environment, which casts its shadows far into our prole-
tarian thought life. But if our proletarian consciousness
cannot fully expand and express itself under a capitalist
environment, we find at least a wide field for the prac-
tical application of our historical materialism and prole-
tarian monism in our various organizations and our inter-
course with comrades. It is here that we should more
than heretofore practice what we preach and eliminate
as much as possible the survivals of anti-dialectic
thought.

We want to give full recognition to the overwhelming
importance of the economic basis as a clue to the mental
life and social superstructures of the various historical
epochs. But at the same time, we also want to give due
recognition to the telluric, biological, and cosmic factors
which shape our physiology and psychology, and without
which the historical process remains unintelligible. We
don't want to deduce the principles of social evolution

258' SOCIALISM AND fHlLOSOPHT

from the principles of Darwinism or Speneeriaiiism,-but
we do want to apply the inductive method of materialist
dialectics to all sciences, and utilize the results of special
research for a general understanding- of the universe,
society, and the individual. We want to distinguish
clearly between economic and other historical facts,
between a scientific presentation of economic and polit-
ical facts and an appeal to ethic or Eesthetic sentiments.
But at the same time we want to realize that moral,
standards, ethic and aesthetic feelings are likewise
historical facts, even when they are under the influence
of vague and meaningless concepts. What we have
to do is to place ethic and aesthetic sentiments on a
solid scientific basis, and for the proletariat this basis is
the class-struggle, the materialist conception of history,
and Dietzgen's theory of cognition. But an implacable
separation of scientific argument from appeal to senti-
ment is a violation of the dialectic method. Both things
belong together.

We want to insist on a full understanding of sciehtifie
Socialism and keep the proletarian movement on the safe
path of revolutionary tactics and aims. But we also
want to realize that all sorts of eclectic Socialism, such
as sentimental, Christian, revisionist, impossibilist Social-
ism, are natural products of proletarian evolution, which
we should educate and assimilate, if possible, instead of
straightway combating or isolating them. We want a
clean line of cleavage between proletarian thought and
bourgeois thought. But we also want to realize that this
is merely a formal cleavage, that these two flow into one
another imperceptibly in real life, and cannot be cut

SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY 259

asunder as by a knife. Their separation must not be
carried to the point of excess and meaninglessness.*

The Socialist Party must remain a revolutionary
party, aye, it must become more revolutionary to the
extent that Capitalism approaches the critical period of
transition into Socialism. But the Socialist Party must
also be a conservative party in the sense that it must
preserve the historical progress of the bourgeoisie against
the reactionary aims of the bourgeoisie itself. In order
to accomplish this, the Socialist Party must know how
to reconcile its revolutionary class-struggle tactics with
the opportunist requirements of its every day activity
under Capitalism. We must not carry opportunism to
the point of abandoning our class-struggle position for
the sake of insignificant palliatives or a handful of
doubtful votes. But neither must we distort the class-
struggle into a meaningless catchword or a sterile isola-
tion from all present day activity. We want to insist on
the intelligent use of the ballot. We want to extend the
electoral franchise to both sexes and free it from all
reactionary interference. But we don't want to make a

•Mark well that I am speaking of a dialectic correlation,
not of a sentimental conciliation. This correlation may signify
a peaceful development side by side, or a struggle for suprein-
acy without co-operation. So far as the modern socialist move-
ment is concerned, the class-struggle is the decisive test in
this correlation. Impossibilism and revisionism may, as a rule,
exist within the Socialist Party, and co-operate with Marxism
on the same basis for their common aims. Whether these
tendencies shall be tolerated in the party or excluded from it,
depends on considerations, W"hich must be analyzed in each
particular case. On the other hand, deep antagonisms, such as
class-struggles in society, cannot be overcome in any other
way than by natural selection through a struggle for adapta-
tion. The antagonism between proletarians and capitalists can
be overcome only by a transformation of capitalist society into
a socialist society. The above passage must not be interpreted
in any other way.

260 SOCIALISM AND PHILOSOPHY

fetish of the ballot, nor exaggerate our veneration for it
into the belief that it is our only effectiYe weapon. All
weapons are good which accomplish our aim, and if the
ballot should prove a failure we shall not hesitate to
resort to other weapons, "even to powder, lead, and
dynamite.

Antonio Labriola and Joseph Dietzgen have made
lasting contributions to socialist thought by bringing
these facts home to our understanding. Labriola 's special
merit is to have clearly shown that we must study the
social conditions which were the cradle of historical
materialism, if we would understand its full meaning.
He has demonstrated to us that we must familiarize
ourselves also with the individual growth of the founders
of scientific Socialism, of its prominent interpreters, its
present day elaborators. Unless we do this, we cannot
test the extent to which these men realized the implica-
tions of their own theories, their historical position in
the general development of human consciousness, nor
the extent to which they themselves were consistent in
the application of their theories. Only by doing this
can we ascertain how much still remains for us to do in
the workshop of historical materialism.

Dietzgen 's crowning merit is to have cured historical
materialism of its dialectic weakness, to have freed it
from the last vestiges of metaphysics, and to have placed
Marx's revolutionary theory on the solid foundation of
an impregnable theory of cognition, which no reactionary
assault of metaphysical dualism can ever shatter.

It remains for us to use diligently and faithfully the
instruments which these two workers have added to the
arsenal of Marx and Bngels. Ernest Untbrmann.

Orlando, Florida, August 9, 1906.

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